Ukuqonda Ukuhambelana Okubalulekileyo

Isenzo sokukhetha yimfundiso yomgaqo-siseko esekelwe kwiSicwangciso soMphetho-siseko se-Adminth Claus. Kunokuba isebenzise ngokuzenzekelayo onke amalungiselelo eBhili yamaLungelo kurhulumente nakoorhulumente basekuhlaleni, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ngokuthe ngcembe iye yagqiba ukuba ziziphi iinkuselo “ezinxulumene necebo lokulawula iMelika lokusesikweni” kwaye ngoko ke zinyanzelekile ukuba zikhuselwe kumazwe. Le ndlela yokuzikhusela yaqalisa ngokunyanisekileyo [[FLT: 0]] Gitlow v. New York[[FLT:] [25]), xa iNkukhusa ithelelwa ukuba ukuKhuselwa koMmiselo wokuqala wenkululeko yokuthetha kusetyenziswe ngamatyala. Kumashumi eminyaka eyalandelwa yinkululeko enye, ukhuselwanothiso lwezikhuseli, ukuphembelela nelungelo lokuzingcangcamla ngokungekho ngqiqweqweni, ukuhlasela, ukuhlasela ilungelo lokuzibamba, ukuhlasela, ukuhlasela nokugweba okunga, ukuququququza kwabanye, ukuququza, nokuvava ityala, ukusetyenziswa phakathi kobu

Ngokubalulekileyo, ukuqukumbela okukhethayo akuthethi ukuba kufuneka kuboniswe inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho yorhulumente kuzo zonke iinkcukacha. Kunoko, kumele kumiswe umgangatho ophantsi womgaqo-siseko — umgangatho ophantsi wamalungelo ongenakuwa phantsi kombuso. Amazwe ahlala ekhululekile ukunika ukhuseleko olukhulu[ phantsi komgaqo-siseko womthetho wawo, kodwa akanakukwazi ukuvala amalungelo asisiseko athathwa yiNkundla yezomthetho-mthetho njengeyimfuneko kwinkqubo efanelekileyo. Esi siseko siseyinjini yekhulu yemimiselo yolungiso solwaphulo-mthetho ehlazinzileyo kwinkulungwane edluleyo, inyanzelela ukuba amapolisa ayenze imisebenzi yawo, iinkqubo zokuvavanya, imimiselo, kunye nemithetho. Ukucaphula iinkcukacha zemfundiso, bona [FLT:] i-Coll Informationstionstions se-algial Institutes[FFF]

Izigqibo Eziyintloko ZeNkundla Ephakamileyo Ezaphembelela Ubulungisa

Le Nkundla ifake malunga namashumi amabini anesibini eesiqinisekiso esingqalileyo esisuka kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Imithetho emininzi ephawulayo yaguqula indlela iinkqubo zomthetho zomthetho zasekuhlaleni nezolwaphulo-mthetho ezisebenza ngayo. Ukuqonda la matyala kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela okubandakanya okukhethayo okubangela ngayo utshintsho.

UMthetho - siseko Wesine: Uphando Olungenangqiqo Neziphene

Mapp v.O. [1961], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaquka umthetho wokususa — umgaqo wokuba ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokuphandwa okungekho mthethweni okanye ukuxhuzula bungasetyenziswa ekulingweni. Phambi , iinkundla zelizwe zinokuvuma ngokungekho mthethweni ukuba bungafunyanwa nokuba bekunokucinezelwa kwinkundla yomthetho elawulayo. Isigqibo somthetho esinyanzelelweyo ukuba sithobele iSihlanu soMnyulo okanye silahle ityala. Le sigqibo sinye sokuqeqesha amapolisa kwakhona, imiyalelo egunyazisa, imiyalelo, kunye nokusetyenziswa kolwazi. Kwakhona inika amagqwethawe ukuba avavanye ukuvavanyaza inkqubela yokusebenza kwale kweminyaziso ukucinezela. Iziphumo zokuthintela iziphumo zezo zomsebenzi wangoku. Isiphumo soluvoluvo oluphezulu singulo: “igunyazisa ukulawulwa kwemithetho kunye nokusetyenziswa kwamapolisa ngokusetyenziswa kobuphicosa i-og.

UHlaliso lweNtlanganiso lweNtlalo-ntle:

[[[NTL: 0]] Imiranda v. Arizona (66) yaquka ilungelo lokuHlaziya lesihlanu ngokuchasene nokuziphikisa kwaye kwafuna ukuba amapolisa azixelele amalungelo awo phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya. Izilumkiso — ilungelo lokuhlala buthule, ilungelo elikummeli, nesilumkiso esinokuthiwe sisetyenziswe nxamnye nomntu — saba sisixhobo esiphambili senkqubo yamapolisa ezweni lonke. Ngexesha lempikiswano, umthetho uye wanconywa ngokuhlisa ukuncinwa kwemibuzo nokuvunywa kwetyala nokuvunywa kwezono. Ngokuthenjiswa kwetyala, ngokukodwa izigqibo ezithi kamva [FLT: 2].[5]

UMthetho Wesithandathu Ohlaziyiweyo: Ukufanele Ukucetyiswa Nokuvavanywa Kwetyala Okufanelekileyo

Ilungelo eliya kwigqwetha eliligxesi likarhulumente elikwimeko enzima lafakwa kwi Gedeon v. Wainright [1963]. Ngobusuku, kwafuneka ukuba amagqwetha anikezele kumagqwetha angenako ukuhlawula enye — kungekhona nje kumatyala amakhulu kodwa kwiimeko zonke ezimanyumnyezi. Isigqibo sandiswa kakhulu iinkqubo zokhuselo zikawonke-wonke, nangona ngaphantsi kwe-onqanwa ihlala ingumngeni ozinziswa. Inkundla kamva yandisa ilungelo lokunika icebiso lokungalungisi kumaxesha okubanjwa okanye amatyala anokuphumela kwixesha lokuvalelwa entolongweni (]]] [agrgister v[FLT]], [12], yaye i-okskin'ubugronaba] [Fogne], i-offnethi], i-Emperencel, ingu engumali elungileyo, ingunxa-onke, inguquququququ yakwa, isebenza ngokusetyenziswa yimeko yetyala, i-onke

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

U-Admist Bail and Directive Resources zafakwa ngo- Robinson v. California (62]), eyawisa umthetho wesizwe owenza ukukhotyokiswa yiziyobisi kube yityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Oku kwavula umnyango wenkundla yesizwe ukuhlola ukugwetywa nokubonelelwa kwesohlwayo. Imigudu yale mihla — kuquka ucelomngeni olungekho lulutsha ([FLT:]] [FLT]]] Miller v. [FLT:[FLT], 2012], isigwebo sobugqeba sobugqeba ([[FLT]]) [5] [uphetho loluntu oluthekileyo] [unikezelo lwabiwo-onke].[5], i-unikezelo-mthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho oluthelelwe phantsi kwemiqatha] [umthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho woburhulumente woburhulumente]

Indlela Ekhethwe Ngayo Ngokungqalileyo Ilungisa Lolwaphulo - mthetho

Ukukhetha akukhuseli nje kuphela amalungelo angabonakaliyo; kuneziphumo ezisebenzisekayo, zemihla ngemihla kubo bonke abakwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho — ukusuka kumagosa amapolisa ajikelezayo ukuya kubagwebi enkundleni ukuya kubantu ababuyela ekhaya emva kokubanjwa. Ngasezantsi kukho iindawo eziphambili apho ukuququzelelwa kukhuthaza utshintsho olunentsingiselo.

Imigaqo-nkqubo

Phambi kokuba amapolisa angenelele, amapolisa asekuhlaleni ayekhululekile kakhulu ekuthintelweni kweSine soMphetho-mda. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, le miyalelo itshintshiwe ngokwemigaqo yezobugcisa. Umzekelo, amasebe amaninzi amapolisa ngoku afuna imvume ebhaliweyo phambi kokuqhuba uphendlo olungenasiqinisekiso — uqheliselo olungakho ngaphambi kokuquququzelelwa. Iinkqubo zombutho, imigaqo-nkqubo yokuphengulula. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, ezi zigunyaziso zibekwe ngokuvela kwimigangatho engobuchule. Umzekelo, amasebe amaninzi amapolisa afuna amagosa afumane imvume ebhaliweyo phambi kokuqhuba uphengululo olungenasiqinisekiso. Umthetho obeko ukungabikho komthetho woburhulumente. Iinkqubo zokuhamba kwenqanawa, ukuqokelelwa kweminyazo, nokuxelwa kwemili-o-onkcotha ngendlela engundoqo.

Ubulungisa Bangaphambili Notshintsho OluyiBhayibhile

Ukufakwa kwe-Eight Expressive Bail Claus, ecaciswe kwi-. I-Indiana, inike amandla amatsha okutshintsha ibheyile. Iinkundla ngoku ziyaqonda ukuba akunakubeka iimali zebheyile “ezinxulumene netyala” okanye amandla ommangalelwa okuhlawula. Oku kuye kwakhokelela ekukhululeni iingcinga zokukhulula abenzi bolwaphulo-mthetho abangekho mkhosi, izixhobo zovavanyo, nemiqathango yemiqathango yemali yokuba abantu abavalelwe kwilizwe ngenxa nje yokuba babehlwempuze. Ngoxa iziko zonke ezimiselwe ngumgangatho womthetho zinika izityholo ezinamandla ngokuchasene nobutyebi bokugcinwa. Oku kungenelo olusemthethweni. [FF:]

Izilingo Ezifanelekileyo Noncedo Olunempumelelo Lwesiluleko

Ukuhlaziywa kweSithandathu SoHlaliso kunyanzelekile ukuba kuxhaswe iinkqubo zokukhusela uwonke wonke, kuqinisekiswe iimvavanyo ezikhawulezayo, kwaye kunikezelwe iijaji ezingakhethiyo. Kodwa iingxaki ezinzulu ziyaqhubeka: ukuthwaliswa kwetyala likawonke-wonke kusoloko kukonakalisa, kukhokelela kwinkxaso engaphumeleliyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo ithethe oku ngezigqibo ezifana [ Srickland v. Washington[[FLT] [FLT]] [19984] [1] [iiiiiiiiiiindlela], ezakhankanyiswayo kwisiluleko sokunene. Ngoku abaguquli baphikisa ukuba iinkqubo zabo zokulwayo zichasa ngendlela elungele ukuchasa i-okisane.

Ukugweba Utshintsho Nothutho

Ukubekwa kweSimiko soMphetho-mva wesiXhosa esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga kuye kwangundoqo kwisohlwayo esinzima. Graham v. Florida[ [2010], iNkundla yathi ubomi obungenatyala labantwana abagwetyelweyo ngenxa yezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezingekho mthethweni. Ezi zisigqibo sokusetyenziswa kweNkundla yezobuntwana asiyiyo isokufumana ukhuseleko. [[FLT:] ME] Mnulder v.[FLT][4] [FFT]] [200] [5] [ethenjiwe-okl], ifuna ukugwetywa kobutsha nokubuyiselwa kobomi. [5]

Ucelomngeni Nokugxekwa Kokhetho

Phezu kwako nje ukutshintsha kwayo, ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo akunamgxeki. Abahlalutyi baphakamisa iimpikiswano ezininzi ezibalulekileyo eziqhubeka zidala iimpikiswano ngokuguqula ubulungisa.

Umanyano kunye noRhulumente i-Autonomy

Enye into eqhubekayo yokugxeka kukuba ukungenelela okukhethiweyo kulawulo lukarhulumente. Amagunya okuLandlwa kweMpahla yeTenth awawaphathiswanga urhulumente wesizwe kumaphondo, kunye nokuQalisa isizukulwana esithe tyekwayo kwayinkqubo apho amaziko aya kuba ngabaphathi-mthetho abaphambili bemithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngokubeka imilinganiselo yesizwe kwiinkundla zenkundla zamapolisa kunye namapolisa, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngokugqibeleleyo ijongene nobuchule bamazwe bokuzama iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokusebenzisa okusesikweni. Abahlaziyi bemili bemisholo baphikisa ukuba kufuneka bakhululeke ukumisela imithetho yabo esisiseko, logama nje ingaphuli zithethe ezisukruleyo eziziintlawulo zembali. Abahlazi bechasa ukuba amalungelo angundoqo afanele ahlukane ngemithetho ye-zipzipy-14ne yaye ulawulo lwe- Amenziletimentiletelvery luyilwe ngokucacileyo ukuqinisekisa amalungelo esizwe.

Ukungaguqu-guquki Nokungagqibeki

Okunye ukugxeka kukuthi kusetyenziswe ngokungalunganga. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yaquka imfuneko yeSibini yoMmiselo-mda elungileyo yokugcina nokuphatha iingalo ( McDonald v. Chicago[, 2010, kodwa ayikhange ifakelise uLawulo lwesithathu (amajoni) okanye iSindululo seSigqibo esiphezulu senkundla (esingabalelwanga yinkululeko enzulu). Oku kusetyenziswa yiNkubonakalisa iSixeko somthetho. [[FLT][FLT],[3], 1884]. Abagxeki babonisa ukuba imfundiso ayinawo umgaqo oqulukileyo: amanye amalungelo aqukiweyo, ngenxa yokuba abanye “abangcamkelwe ngokunzulu,” ngenxa yokuba“ oku kuyimfuneko ukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko. [kusetyenziswa kwe-projectivessionssionsting procestionstions, productivessstion, produartsssss produants proviation, prouption,[F

Imfundiso yokwalukelwa kwezinto.

Ukukhetha i-internation kudla ngokuphikiswana ngelens yotoliko lomgaqo-siseko. I-Clarence Thomas, equka iJaji yeSindululo seshumi elinesine, iphikisa ngelithi uLawulo lweMimiselo lwalulungiselelwe ukuquka kuphela amalungelo “oooomasipala okanye abagonyelwayo bobumi” — umiselo olumxinwa ngaphezu kweBhili-Malungelo. UThomas uza kuthatha indawo ye-'Umxokelelwano ka-Xast Clauslean's' ngokubhekiselele okanye u-Immostion' njengesithuthi senqwelo-mafutha sokudibanisa, enokuthi imisele ikhuselwa imiqobo. Imithetho-siseko inqande ukuba iiFramers zisebenzise iilwimi ezibanzi ukuze izizukulwana ezizayo zikwazi ukutshintsha amalungelo amatsha. Imbono aphakathi kwezi ziphumo zokwenene zotshintsho: ukufikelela kolwando oluphezulu, ngoxa ukufikelela ekungeneni kobuphicoce.

Ikamva Lokungagqibeli KwezoNtsebenziswano Kutshintsho Lobulungisa Olwesaphula Umthetho

Ukukhangela phambili, ukudibanisa okukhethiweyo kuya kuqhubeka kusisixhobo sokulwa utshintsho. Imibandela emininzi eqhambukayo iza kuvavanya ukufikelela kwale mfundiso.

Ukuzimela Kwamanani Nohlaziyo Lwesine

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sesokuLawula amanani ukuququzelela kwe- (208) sathi urhulumente usoloko efuna isiqinisekiso sokufikelela kwi-cell-indawo yogcino-lwazi. Umthetho wasebenzisa uLawulo lweSine lokuLandlisa ukuqwalasela amanani — ulwandiso olusengqiqweni ukuququzelela. Iimeko zexesha elizayo ziza kuqikelela ukuba iDementestement ikhusela idata yeSine sokuLamlamfa ekhothayo kwizixhobo zebbekshini, ukwazisa ubuso, ukululaza ipleyiti yephepha elizenzekelayo, kunye nokuhlola. Ngenxa yokuba ezi ndlela zobugcisa zisetyenziswa kakhulu ngurhulumente kunye nomthetho-omatshini abamele umthetho, abaququlukileyo bahlala bekwisithulo lwemimiselo lwesizwe. Abaququququluneli be-gropood profileod syttingstings, izixhobo ze-graccut sytmous

Ukuhlaziywa kweMiqathango yeNkcubeko

Ityala livule ityala elithi ```````FLT']' ukumisela uhlahlo-mali lwemali efunyenweyo kodwa likwafuna ukuva iimali ezihlawulelwayo, iimali, kunye neemali ezinokubanjwa ngabantu ematyaleni. Ezinye inkundla sele zicaphula [ izigqumo [ ukulinganisela ukusetyenziswa kwemirhumo yemali ebhanki yomthetho okanye ukufuna ukuva ukuva ubuchule bommangalelwa bokuhlawula. Abaxhasi bemali abathi bemali bachasa ukuva ukuva ukuhlaziywa kokuhlaziywa komkelo oluzinzileyo kumgangatho wesi-8.

Ubulungisa Bemibhiyozo Nobulungisa

[[NTL:0] I-Miller kunye izigqibo zobuntwana ziguqule ukugwetywa kolutsha, kodwa amazwe amaninzi aye azama ukuzalisekisa iindlebe ezifunekayo. Ezinye iinkundla ziye zandisa uluvo lokufuna uhlolo kubo bonke abasebenzi bobomi abaselula, hayi kuphela abo bagwetyiweyo emva kokulawula. I-FLT iqinisekisa ukuba kwanemithetho yobuntwana enzima kufuneka inike ithuba elinentsingiselo lokukhulula. Ikamva linokuvavanya ukuba ngaba ukuLamlalisa okuziweyo kusini na ngaphandle kwesigaba esisibhozo sobomi (ageold 1825) ngokusekelwe kwinzululwazi yengqondo, okanye enoba imibhobho encinane ejongeneyo engakwazi ukuqwalasela ubutsha.

Isiphelo

Ukukhetha iNkundla ePhakamileyo ingaphezulu kakhulu kunemfundiso esemthethweni; yinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko eye yazisa iBhili yamaLungelo ukuba ithwale iinkqubo zomthetho wesizwe nezezolwaphulo-mthetho zasekuhlaleni. Kwinkulungwane yomthetho wamatyala, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yakha ukhuseleko oluninzi olukhusela abantu ekuphathweni ngamapolisa, abatshutshisi, nabagwebi. Le nkqubo ikhusela iye yakhuthaza utshintsho oluthe ngqo kwimisebenzi yamapolisa, ukuvalelwa kwetyala, ukukhusela okungenatyala, kunye nokugweba — inkqubela ebengayi kuba yinto enokwenzeka ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso se-Idminth stem Amedimeter senkqubo esiqinisekisa ukuba i-endomgamgamgamgamga.

Kodwa ukuqukumbela okukhethiweyo akuyoprojekthi egqityiweyo. Njengoko ubugcisa obutsha buvela, njengoko ukungalingani kobuhlanga noqoqosho kuqhubeka, kwaye njengoko ukuguquka kweNkundla, le mfundiso iza kuqhubeka iguquka. Abaguquli kufuneka baqonde amandla ayo kunye nemida yayo. Umgangatho wamalungelo osungulwayo uyimfuneko, kodwa umgangatho kuphela. Ubulungisa bokwenyaniso bufuna ukuba loo mazwe, ingingqi, kunye neenkundla zorhulumente zisebenze kunye ukuphakamisa loo mgangatho — kwaye bakhe inkqubo ephila phantsi kwesithembiso sokhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho.

Abo banomdla wokufunda ngokubhekele phaya, ithala leencwadi leBrencan linika ukhokelo olubanzi oluphengululayo kwindibaniso ekhethekileyo , kwaye iBrennan Center yeJaji inika uhlalutyo oluqhubekayo ngendlela imigaqo yokuguqula ngayo ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Ikamva lotshintsho liza kuxhomekeka kuxa iinkundla ziqhubeka zihlonela umgaqo wokuba amalungelo aqulunqeniswe kwiBhili yamaLungelo akango nje amacebiso asekuhlaleni, kodwa iziqinisekiso ezisisiseko zenkululeko yomntu ngamnye eUnited States.