Table of Contents

Inkqubo yokugweba ithe yiyona mpembelelo inamandla eguqula ibutho labantu namhlanje. Ngezigwebo zenkundla ezibalaseleyo, abagwebi bachaza imigaqo engokomGaqo-siseko, bachaza amalungelo abantu ngabanye, baze bamisele imigaqo esemthethweni elawula izigidi zabantu. Ukuqonda indlela iinkundla ezibumba ngayo imithetho yethu kufuna ukuba zivavanye amatyala abalulekileyo aguqula imigaqo-mthetho yaseMerika kwaye ziqhubeke ziphembelela ukucinga okusemthethweni namhlanje.

Ukusuka ekumiseleni umgaqo osisiseko wokuhlola okusisiseko wokuchaza amalungelo abantu kunye nenkululeko yabo, izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ziye zayichaza ngokuphindaphindiweyo imida yamandla karhulumente nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. La matyala amela ngaphezu kobuchule obusemthethweni .

Ukuqonda Impinda Yomgwebo: Isiseko Samandla Enkundla

Uhlolo lwezeejaji lungolunye lweempawu ezahlukileyo zomthetho-siseko waseUnited States. Noko ke, umGaqo-siseko awuwaniki ngokuphandle amatyala asekuhlaleni amandla okuvakalisa izenzo zikarhulumente ezingekho mgaqweni. Eli gunya lavela ngokucaciswa kwezagwebo kwaye liye laba ligumbi lesiseko lenkqubo yomthetho yaseMerika.

Ingcamango yokuhlola isigwebo ivumela iinkundla ukuba zihlole imithetho edluliswa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho nezenzo ezithatyathwa ngamagosa aphetheyo ukuze agqibe enoba ayavumelana na neemfuno zomGaqo-siseko. Xa iinkundla zifumanisa ukuba umthetho okanye isenzo siyawonakalisa umGaqo-siseko, zingawubetha, ziwunike imvume enganyanzeleki. Eli gunya libeka ijaji kwindawo ekhethekileyo njengomchazi wokugqibela wentsingiselo yesiseko.

Ukuqheliselwa kohlolo lokugweba kuya kunceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba isebe lejaji lihlala lilingana norhulumente ecaleni kwamasebe owiso-mthetho kunye namasebe alawulayo. Le nkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela ithintela naliphi na isebe ekufumaneni amandla agqithisileyo kwaye ikhusela imigaqo-siseko kwiinkalo zezobupolitika zokwexeshana.

IMarbury v. Madison (103): Ukumisela iGunya lezeMigwebo

Marbury v. Madison sisigqibo esiphawulekayo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States esamisela umgaqo wokuhlola ityala. Ngo-1803, iMarbury ithathwa njengesona sigqibo sibalulekileyo kumthetho-siseko waseMerika.

Imeko Yezobupolitika

Eli tyala laqala ekuqaleni konyaka ka-1801 laza lavela kusukuzwano phakathi komongameli ophumayo uJohn Adams kunye nomongameli ozayo uThomas Jefferson. Adams, ilungu leQela loManyano loLuntu, laphulukana nonyulo lomongameli wase-U.S. lonyaka we-1800 ukuya ku-Jefferson, owakhokela iDemocratic-Republican Party. Kwiintsuku zokugqibela zeProfesidenti yakhe, uAdam wamisela abagwebi abaninzi bobuPhondo ukuba bagcine impembelelo yeqela lakhe kwicandelo lejajidisi.

UWilliam Marbury wayephakathi kwabo bamiselwa njengobulungisa boxolo kwiSithili saseColumbia. Noko ke, uthumo lwakhe aluzange lunikelwe phambi kokuba uJefferson athathe isikhundla. Umongameli omtsha wayalela unobhala wakhe weLizwe, uJames Madison, ukuba anqande iikhomishini eziseleyo, emisela iqonga lenkxwaleko yomgaqo-siseko.

Iqhinga leBrilliat likaMarshall

Kwimbono eyabhalwa nguMarshall, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yathi ukwala kukaMadison ukuhambisa ikomishini kaMarbury kwakungekho mthethweni. Inkundla yakwathi kuqhele ukuba kufanelekile kwiimeko ezinjalo ukuba inkundla ithethe igosa likarhulumente ukuba liphendule eli tyala. Kodwa ke, uMadrall wajamelana nemeko enzima yezopolitiko.

Ukuba iNkundla yayalela uMadison ukuba adlulisele umkhosi, uJefferson angawuhoyi lo myalelo, ebhenca ubuthathaka bejaji. Ukuba iNkundla yayingavumi ukukhupha umyalelo, bekuya kubonakala ukuba isebe lejaji linyanzelekile kwingcinezelo yabalawuli. Marshall wavelisa isisombululo esiziphepha zombini izithintelo ngexesha elinye lokwandisa amandla ejaji.

Ukuhlolisisa umthetho weBhunga loMgaqo-siseko kwaye kwamiselwa ukuchaza igunya leNkundla ePhakamileyo − iCandelo 13 loMthetho weJadicary ka-1789(89). Inkundla yafumanisa ukuba lo Mgaqo-siseko unyule inkcazo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ngaphezu koko kwakumiselwe kumGaqo-siseko wase-U.Inkundla yandula yasibetha icandelo 13 lale senzo, ivakalisa ukuba iinkundla zaseMerika zinamandla okuphelisa imithetho eziyifumanayo ukuchasana nomGaqo-siseko.

Imiphumo Engapheliyo

Yafumanisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. ngumthetho wokwenene, hayi nje ingxelo yemigaqo neengcamango zobupolitika. Yanceda ekuchazeni umda phakathi kwamasebe alawulayo ahlukeneyo ngokwemGaqo-siseko kunye namasebe agweba orhulumente worhulumente worhulumente. Lo mgaqo waguqula inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko waseMerika.

KuMadison, owagqiba ngo-1803, iNkundla Ephakamileyo, okokuqala, yasingela phantsi isenzo soMbutho njengenkqubo engekho mgaqweni. Esi sigqibo sadala imfundiso yokuhlola okugweba saza samisela iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States njengengcali eyintloko yomGaqo-siseko. Isigqibo sesigqibo sabekwa ngendlela uMarshall awayeqinisekisa ngayo amandla okugweba ngexesha elinye ngoxa wayefikelela kwisiphumo uJefferson awayenokusamkela.

Nangona kungekho mthetho uthe wavakaliswa ungekho mthethweni de kwayisigqibo sikaDred Scott so1857, indima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo yokuphelisa imithetho karhulumente neyamazwe achasene nomGaqo-siseko ayizange icelwe mngeni nzulu. UMarbury wamisela umzekelo oye wanyamezela ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini yaye waphembelela iinkqubo zomgaqo-siseko ehlabathini lonke.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Ukungavumelani

INkundla eyahlukeneyo yarhoxa kwiPlessy v. Ferguson yathi imithetho karhulumente efuna okanye evumela izikolo ezicalucalulwe ngokweentlanga zaphula i-Encilime Protection Claus yeSinyusi seshumi elinesine. INkundla yathetha ngodumo ukuba izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukeneyo azilingani ngokwemvelo.

Ukujika ngaphezulu "Ukwahlula Kodwa Kuyalingana"

Isigqibo sikaBrown sibhengezwa njengesigqibo esiphawulekayo kwimbali yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, sibhukuqa iPlesty v. Ferguson (1896) eyadala "imfundiso eyahlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo". KwiPessing, iNkundla yathi nangona umthetho weLouisiana wawufuna ukuba abakhweli benjawe ngokusekelwe kuhlanga, akukho kungquzulwano olukwiSiphendulo se 1450'Ukhuseleko lweSiphendulo sika Claus Claus ekwakuhlawulwa kuso, kodwa olulinganayo.

Phantse iminyaka engamashumi amathandathu, isigqibo sePlesby sanika ugwebo olusemthethweni lokwahlukana kobuhlanga kulo lonke elaseUnited States. Izikolo, ezothutho, iivenkile zokutyela, iihotele, phantse zonke iinkalo zobomi bukawonke-wonke ezisetyenziswa phantsi kwenkqubo egqwethekileyo, ingakumbi kuMzantsi. "Imfundiso ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo" yavumela amazwe ukuba agcine amaqela amaqela angabantu ngexesha athi athobela umGaqo-siseko.

Indlela Eya EBrown

Ityala leBrown laziqinisa iimeko eziliqela ezivela kumazwe awahlukahlukeneyo, zonke izahlulo zesikolo ezilucelomngeni. Lelead plantiff, uOrrer Brown, wagweba iTopeka, ibhodi yesikolo seKansas emva kokuba intombi yakhe ingazange ivunyelwe ukuya kwisikolo sabamhlophe esikufuphi nekhaya layo yaye wanyanzeleka ukuba aye kwisikolo esinemiqathango ekude.

INaACP Legal Defense Fund, ekhokelwa nguThurfall Marshall (emva wayeza kuba nguJaji wokuqala weNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseMerika), wavelisa iqhinga elibanzi elingokwasemthethweni. Banikela ubungqina benzululwazi yezentlalo obubonisa ukuba ukucalucalula kwamaqela kwabangela umonakalo ongokwengqondo kubantwana baseAfrika, idiza ingcamango yokuba amaziko ahlukeneyo anokuze alingana ngokwenene.

Ukuguqula Uluntu LwaseMerika

Ngokubhukuqa le mfundiso, iBrown Court yanceda ekubangeleni umbutho wamalungelo abantu nokudibanisa ilizwe lonke. Esi sigqibo samela ixesha elibi kwimbali yaseMerika, nangona ukuphunyezwa kwayo kwangqineka kulucelomngeni yaye kuthanda ukuxabana.

Amaphondo amaninzi aseMazantsi abandakanyeke ku "ukuxhathisa kobundlobongela," ukungavumi ukuthobela imiyalelo yekhethelo. Ezinye izikolo zazivalela ngokupheleleyo izikolo zikawonke-wonke kunokuba zidibane. Maxa wambi imikhosi yomkhosi wamaFrentshi yayiyimfuneko ukunyanzelisa imiyalelo yenkundla, njengaxa uMongameli Eisenhower wathumela i-10% Airborne Division kwiLittle Rock, Arkansas ngo1957 ukukhusela abafundi abasithoba baseAfrika baseMerika bexuba iCentral High School.

Ngaphandle kokuchasa, uBrown ngokusisiseko waguqula ummandla osemthethweni. Yaqinisekisa ukuba i-Acime Protection Claus yalwalela ucalulo lobuhlanga olukhuselweyo kwaye yanika imbumbulu esemthethweni kumbutho wamalungelo abantu obanzi. Imigaqo yesigqibo yadlulela ngaphaya kwemfundo ukucel ’ umngeni ukungabikho koluntu kuzo zonke iindawo zobomi.

Miranda nxamnye noArizona (1966): Ukukhusela Abakhuseli Bezaphuli - mthetho

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Amapolisa kufuneka azise abarhanelwa ngamalungelo abo ngaphambi kokubuzwa. INkundla Ephakamileyo yavuma, ibambe ukuba amapolisa amele axelele abarhanelwe ngamalungelo abo ngaphambi kokuba bancinwe. Eli tyala ngokusisiseko liguqula iinkqubo zokunyanzeliswa komthetho kulo lonke elaseUnited States.

Isiqalo Setyala

Emva kweeyure zokuncinwa ngamapolisa, uErnesto Miranda wavuma ukuba udlwengule kwaye uqweqwedile. Ekuthethweni kwetyala, wazama ukuphelisa ukuvuma kwakhe izono, echaza ukuba akacetyiswanga ngamalungelo akhe okululeka nokuthula. Ityala likaMiranda laphakamisa imibuzo esisiseko ngokuncinwa ngokusesikweni kwamapolisa kunye nokukhuselwa kwamalungelo omGaqo-siseko.

INkundla yafumanisa ukuba iziHlaliso zeNkundla zesihlanu nezeSithandathu zifuna ukuba amapolisa azise abantu abasejele ukuba banelungelo lokuthula nokuncedwa ligqwetha. Ngokutsho kweNkundla, ukuba amapolisa akakwenzi oko, ijaji yenkundla isenokumisela ukuba naziphi na izityholo ezithethwa ngabamangalelwayo azinakuvunywa njengobungqina ebudeni betyala.

Isilumkiso SeMiranda

Isigqibo samisela oko kwabizwa ngokuba "ngamalungelo eMiranda" okanye isilumkiso esithi "Miranda" phambi kokuba aqhutye uncinwano lwetyala, amapolisa kufuneka azise ukuba:

  • Banelungelo lokuthula
  • Nantoni na abathi isenokusetyenziswa kwinkundla
  • banelungelo kwigqwetha
  • Ukuba abanamali yokufumana igqwetha, omnye uza kutyunjwa
  • Bangacela la malungelo nanini na xa bebuzwa

Ezi zilumkiso ziye zagxininisa kwizithethe zaseMerika kangangokuba zibonakala ngokukhawuleza kwiinkqubo neefilimu ezininzi zikamabonwakude.

Ukulungelelanisa Umthetho Onyanzelekileyo Namalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

UMiranda wavusa impikiswano enzulu ngokulungelelana okufanelekileyo phakathi komthetho onyanzelekileyo nokukhusela amalungelo abantu. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi esi sigqibo siya kuthintela ukuphengululwa kwamapolisa size sivumele izaphuli-mthetho ezinetyala ziphumele ekugwetyweni kokusesikweni. Abaxhasi baphikisa ngelithi sinikela ukhuseleko oluyimfuneko ekuncinyweni ngokunyanzelisana kunye nokuvuma izono kobuxoki.

Uphando lubonise ukuba izilumkiso zeMiranda azisebenzi kakuhle ekunyanzelweni komthetho. Abarhanelwa abaninzi basanikela iingxelo kumapolisa, yaye ukuvuma izono kusesisisixhobo esibalulekileyo sophando. Kodwa ke, isigqibo esimiselwe ngokucacileyo sokukhusela ukuthembeka kokuvuma izono nokukhusela ekuxhatshazweni.

INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yalungisa iimfuno zikaMiranda kwiimeko ezilandelayo, iphendula imibuzo malunga nokuba kunini xa ilungelo lokugcina umntwana liqala, yintoni ebangela ukuba kuncinwe, nendlela abarhanelwa ngayo abanokuwaphazamisa ngayo amalungelo abo. Nangona kunjalo, umgaqo ongundoqo uhlala ungatshintshi: abarhanelwayo bamele baxelelwe ngamalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya.

UGqr. 1472 (uMphathiswa weNkqubo yeNkqubo yeNkcubeko)

Imithetho ethintela amandla omfazi okuqhomfa ngaphambi kokuba angabi nasizathu. Imiqathango emininzi ngexesha lomnqamlezi wokuqala ayivumelekanga, kwaye imiqathango yempilo enxulumene nemeko iyavunyelwa ngexesha lomlungisi wesibini. Oku kwakukukubanjwa eRoe v. Wade, esinye sezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ethandabuzekayo kwimbali yeMelika.

Isigqibo Sokuqala

INkundla yagqiba kwelokuba imithetho enjalo ichasene nelungelo lomGaqo-siseko lokuzimela. Isigqibo samisela inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko yamalungelo okuqhomfa ngokusekelwe kwilungelo lokufumana imfihlo, eyayiyiNkundla ngaphambili iyavuma kwiimeko ezibandakanya ukuthintela ukukhawula nokucwangcisa intsapho.

INkundla yeRoe yenza isakhiwo esizinzileyo sokuhlola imimiselo yokuqhomfa. Ngexesha lomthunja wokuqala, isigqibo sokuqhomfa sashiyelwa kwibhinqa nakugqirha wakhe. Ngexesha lomnqumli wesibini, amaziko angalawula ukuqhomfa ukuze akhusele impilo kamama. Kuphela kulowo usisicathulo sesithathu, emva kokukhutshwa kwemiqathango, angakuthintela ukuqhomfa ngaphandle kokuba kuyimfuneko ukusindisa ubomi okanye impilo kamama.

Amashumi Eminyaka Empikiswano

Iroe v. Wade yaba libala lengxoxo yezopolitiko nenkcubeko yaseMerika phantse iminyaka engamashumi amahlanu. Isigqibo sakhuthaza umbutho weproceces, owawukhusela amalungelo okuqhomfa njengayimfuneko kumabhinqa okuzimela nokulingana, kunye nombutho wobomi obungcono, owawugqala ukuqhomfa njengokuphosakeleyo ngokokuziphatha kwaye uzama ukubhukuqa iRoe.

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zalandela izigqibo zalungisa ulwakhiwo lwe-Roe. Clanned Parenthood v. Casey (1992) endaweni yesakhiwo esimtyaba sifake "umthwalo onzima" umlinganiso, uvumela iimeko zibe nobugocigoci obungakumbi ekulawuleni ukuqhomfa ngeli xesha ugcina ilungelo elingundoqo lokukhetha ukuqhomfa ngaphambi kokuba kubonakale ukuba kulungile.

Isigqibo Sezigwebo

Ityala lika-Clanned Parenthood v. I-Casey (1992 kwaye yalawulwa ngokupheleleyo nguDobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022) NgoJuni 2022, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabhukuqa uRoe v. Wade kwisigqibo seDobbs, isusa ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko wesizwe lokuqhomfa.

AmaDobbs amaninzi ayekholelwa ukuba umGaqo-siseko awuliniki ilungelo lokuqhomfa nokuba igunya lokulawula ukuqhomfa kufuneka libuyiselwe kumazwe kunye nabameli abanyuliweyo babantu. Esi sigqibo sasimela enye yeemeko ezinqabileyo apho iNkundla Ephakamileyo yalawula ngokuphandle imodeli enkulu eyayikho kangangamashumi eminyaka.

Isigqibo sakhawuleza sayiguqula indlela esemthethweni yokusebenza. Amazwe afumana igunya lokuthintela okanye ukuvala ngokuqatha ukuqhomfa, yaye amaninzi akwenza oko ngokukhawuleza. Amanye amazwe ashukunyiselwa ukukhusela nokunyusa ukuqhomfa. Isigqibo sasusa umgaqo wokuqhomfa kwimbambano egqitywe yinkundla yezomthetho, yaya kumbuzo wezopolitiko ogqitywe ziindlu zowiso-mthetho kunye nabavoti.

OoNobumba Abangakumbi Ababumba Umthetho WaseMerika

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Federal Supremacy

INkundla yathi iCongress yayithe yathathile amagunya okumisela ibhanki yesizwe phantsi "okuyimfuneko nokufanelekileyo" kwegalelo loMgaqo-siseko wase-United States. INkundla yakwagqiba ukuba imithetho karhulumente waseUnited States imisele imithetho yesizwe kwaye ngenxa yoko, urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuhlawula ibhanki yesizwe.

Isigqibo se-McCulloch samisela imigaqo emibini ebalulekileyo yomthetho womgaqo-siseko oqhubeka namhlanje: umqondiso wamandla nobukhulu borhulumente. Eli tyala lacacisa ukuba urhulumente worhulumente unamandla angaphaya kwalawo achazwe ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kwaye loo mthetho worhulumente uthatha indawo yokuqala kunomthetho karhulumente ongqubanayo.

UGideon (1963): Unelungelo lokucebisa

INkundla yathi uHlaziyo lweSithandathu lwelungelo lokunceda kwisiluleko lusebenza kwiinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho nokuba "amagosa enkundla yezaphuli-mthetho ayimfuneko, akafanele afumane ubunewunewu." Esi sigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba abamangalelwa abamangalelwa banelungelo lokunikwa isiluleko esimiselweyo.

Kunye nelungelo lokunceda abamangalelwa bezaphuli-mthetho baseburhulumenteni, isigqibo sikaGidiyon saba nomphumo wokwandisa iinkqubo zokukhusela uwonke-wonke kulo lonke ilizwe. Eli tyala laqinisekisa ukuba ubuhlwempu abuyi kubathintela abamangalelwa ekufumaneni imvume esemthethweni eyaneleyo, imfuneko esisiseko yezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezisesikweni.

Des Moines (1969): Amalungelo Omfundi Okuthetha

INkundla Ephakamileyo yathi abafundi abawayelanga amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko okuthetha... kwisango lesikolo. Eli tyala lavela xa abafundi babenxibe iintambo ezimnyama esikolweni beze kuqhankqalaza imfazwe yaseVietnam kwaye bebotshelelwe ngenxa yokwenza oko.

INkundla yafumanisa ukuba intetho yabafundi inokwalelwa ukuba iphazamisa inkqubo yemfundo. Ngenxa yokuba kwakungekho bungqina bokuphazamisa okunjalo, isikolo sasichasene nenkululeko yokuGqibela yokuqala. UTinker wafumanisa ukuba abafundi bawagcina amalungelo omgaqo-siseko esikolweni, nangona loo malungelo enokulungelelaniswa kwiinkonzo zemfundo zezikolo.

I-United States v. Nixon (1974): Ingxelo yoMongameli

U.S. v. Nixon (1974) Ukubamba: UMongameli akangaphezulu kumthetho. Eli tyala lavela kwihlazo leWatergate xa uMongameli Nixon wala ukurhoxa iikhasethi ezirekhodiweyo zencoko yeHoom, ebanga ilungelo eliphezulu.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yakugatya ngamxhelo mnye ukumangalela kukaNixon ilungelo elipheleleyo lokulawula, isithi nangona umongameli enelungelo elithile lokunxibelelana ngokufihlakeleyo, kufuneka lifumane iziphumo xa uphando lolwaphulo-mthetho lufuna ubungqina. Isigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu, nkqu nomongameli, ungaphezulu komthetho ``umgaqo-siseko wedemokhrasi.

Nixon wathobela umyalelo weNkundla, kwaye iikhasethi ezikhutshweyo zatyhila ukuba nenxaxheba kwakhe ekugqumeni uqhekeko lwamanzi. Warhoxa kamsinya emva koko, emenza umongameli e-U.S. ukuba arhoxe eofisini. Ityala labonisa indima yejaji ekuhloleni amandla aphezulu nokugcina umthetho.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): Kukukwazi ukuzifihla

Umthetho waseConnecticut osebenzisa ukuthintela inzala kwizibini ezitshatileyo awuvumelani nomthetho kuba bonke abantu baseMerika banelungelo elikhuselwe ngokomGaqo-siseko lokuba bodwa. Esi sigqibo samisela ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko lokuba bodwa, nangona igama elithi "umthetho" lingaveli kumGaqo-siseko.

INkundla yafumanisa ukuba ukutshintshwa komgaqo-siseko okuhlukeneyo kwenza "iipenumbras" okanye iindawo zobuqu. Eli lungelo lokuzifihla laba sisiseko sezigqibo zamva ezibandakanya amalungelo okuzala, kuquka iRoe v.Wade. Isigqibo seGriswold saqonda ukuba izigqibo ezithile zobuqu zibaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba urhulumente akanakuphazamisana nazo ngaphandle kokuzithethelela.

Imigaqo Esisiseko Esemthethweni Emiselwe Yimiba Ephawulweyo

Amatyala aphawulekayo achazwe ngasentla amisela imigaqo emininzi esisiseko eqhubeka ibumba umthetho waseMerika:

Impinda yezeejaji

Iinkundla zinegunya lokuhlola ukuba imithetho nezenzo zikarhulumente ziyavumelana na nomGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya livumela abagwebi ukuba basebenze njengovavanyo kumasebe owiso-mthetho nakwezolawulo, beqinisekisa ukuba lonke inyathelo likarhulumente lihambelana neemfuno zomGaqo-siseko. Uhlolo lwejaji luye lwaba luphawu oluchazayo lomgaqo-siseko waseMerika kwaye luphembelele iinkqubo zomgaqo-siseko ehlabathini lonke.

Ukhuseleko olulinganayo

ISihlaziyi seshumi elinesine soKhuselo oluManyeneyo luka-Claus kufuneka ukuba imithetho iphathe abantu ngokufanayo ababekwe ngokusesikweni. Lo mgaqo uyalela ukuba abantu bakhethe ngokweembono zabo kwaye uye wasetyenziswa ukubetha imithetho esekelwe kwikhethe lohlanga, ubufanasini, nezinye iimpawu. Uhlalutyo olulinganayo lokhuseleko lufuna ukuba iinkundla zihlole enoba izahlulo zikarhulumente ziphumeze iinjongo ezisemthethweni nokuba zilungiselelwe ngokufanelekileyo kusini na ukuze zifezekise ezo njongo.

Amalungelo Emfihlo

Nangona ingakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa likhusela izigqibo ezithile zobuqu ekungeneleleni korhulumente. Eli lungelo liquka izigqibo eziphathelele ukuthintela ukukhawula, ulwalamano lwentsapho, neminye imibandela esondeleyo.

Uqhelaniso neStar Decis

Izigqibo zenkundla zimisela imizekelo ekhokela amatyala azayo. Imfundiso yokuhlola amatyala angaphambili (ngesiLatini esithetha "ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe") ikhuthaza ukungaguquguquki nokuqikelelwa komthetho ngokuyalela iinkundla ukuba zilandele izigqibo zangaphambili ezithetha ngemibandela efanayo. Noko ke, iinkundla zinokuyilawula imizekelo xa zigqiba kwelokuba izigqibo zangaphambili zigqitywe ngokuphosakeleyo okanye zingasasebenzi kokusesikweni.

I-Federal Supremacy

Xa kungquzulwaniswa imithetho karhulumente norhulumente, umthetho wesizwe ulawula phantsi koMgaqo-siseko oMkhulu. Lo mgaqo uqinisekisa ukusetyenziswa komthetho karhulumente omnye kuwo onke amazwe kwaye uthintela oorhulumente ekucuthekeni kwemigaqo-siseko. Noko ke, amaphondo ahlala enegunya elibalulekileyo kwiindawo apho umGaqo-siseko ungaliniki igunya urhulumente worhulumente.

Ilindelekile

IsiHlanziso sesihlanu neseshumi elinesine siqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakubuhlutha ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo yomthetho. Le mfuneko iquka zombini iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo (inkqubo zenqwelo-moya) kunye nenkqubo efunekayo (ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo asisiseko). Inkqubo efunekayo isebenza njengenkuselo echanabileyo kwisenzo sikarhulumente esimiselwe ngokwayo.

Indlela Iinkundla Eziwutolika Ngayo UmGaqo-siseko

Ukuqonda indlela iinkundla eziyibumba ngayo imithetho yethu kufuna ukuba abagwebi bahlolisise indlela abayisebenzisa ngayo ukutolika ingcaciso engokomGaqo-siseko.

Ubuxoki

Abagwebi abacacisa umGaqo-siseko bafuna ukuwuchaza ngokwentsingiselo yawo yokuqala ``````injongo yabalayishi okanye ukuqondwa kwabantu ngokubanzi kombhalo xa wamkelwa.' Abachasi-magama baphikisa ngelithi le ndlela inyanzelisa ukugweba nokugcina ukunyaniseka kumGaqo-siseko njengoko kubhaliwe. Abahlalutyi bathi inkcazo yendalo inokuba neziphumo ezingqubana nemilinganiselo yale mihla kwaye ukufumanisa ukuba intsingiselo yantla kusoloko kunzima okanye akunakwenzeka.

Umgaqo-siseko ophilayo

Abaxhasi bomgaqo-siseko abaphila ngokubhekiselele kumGaqo-siseko bawujonga njengoxwebhu olunamandla olunentsingiselo eguqukayo kunye neemeko zentlalo kunye nemilinganiselo. Baphikisa ngelithi abafaki-mGaqo-siseko babhale umGaqo-siseko ngokuphangaleleyo ukuvumela ukuhambelana neemeko ezingabonwa kwangaphambili. Abahlalutyi baxhalabile kukuba le ndlela yenza abagwebi balumke kakhulu kwaye ibavumela ukuba banyanzelise iimfuno zabo zobuqu kunokuba banyanzelise imiyalelo yomGaqo-siseko.

Ubhalo

Iingcali zokubhala zijolise kwintsingiselo eqhelekileyo yombhalo womgaqo-siseko, zihlolisisa amagama ngokwawo kunokuba zijonge iinjongo ezibanzi okanye iziphumo. Le ndlela igxininisa ukuba abagwebi bafanele bachaze umthetho njengobhaliweyo, hayi njengokuba besenokunqwenela ukuba unjalo. Impembelelo yokubhala ifumene impembelelo kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, ingakumbi ekutolikeni ngokwesithethe.

Ukungalawuleki

Abagwebi abanobuchule baqwalasela iziphumo ezisebenzisekayo zezigqibo zabo, befuna iziphumo ezisebenza kakuhle kwihlabathi lokwenene. Basenokusebenzisa iindlela ezininzi zokuchaza kunye nokulungelelana ukuze bafikelele iziphumo ezisengqiqweni. Abahlalutyi bathi ukusetyenziswa kwemiqathango kunikela ukhokelo olungelulo kwaye kuvumela abagwebi ukuba bathabathe indawo yemigaqo abayithandayo ukuze bahlolisise ngokusemthethweni.

Indima Yeembono Ezingavumelaniyo

Ngoxa izimvo ezininzi zimisela imizekelo engqinelanayo, ukuphikisana kweembono kukwadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuphuhlisweni komthetho. Ukungavumelani nokucacisa ezinye iinkcazelo ezicacileyo nokugxeka iingcamango zoninzi. Zigcina iimpikiswano ezinokufunyanwa kwiimeko zexesha elizayo kwaye maxa wambi ziguquke kwiimfundiso zangaphambili.

Iimbono ezidume kakubi ekugqibeleni ziye zaba zizikhundla ezininzi. IJaji uJohn Marshall Harlan impikiswano ekwahlukanayo yedwa kwiPlessy v. Ferguson, ephikisa ngelithi "umGaqo-siseko wethu ngumbala-oyimfama," wathethelelwa xa uBrown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yabhukuqa phantse phantse kwiminyaka engamashumi amathandathu kamva. UJaji Louis Brandeis ngokuchasene nokungavumelani kwenkululeko yokuthetha kwamalungu omntu ngamnye waqulukwanolo kamva.

Ukungavumelani kukwasebenza imisebenzi yedemokhrasi ngokwenza iimpikiswano zetyala zibe cacileyo kwaye zilungiselele inkcazelo ebangela ingxubusho kawonke-wonke ngentsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko. Isikhumbuza ukuba imibuzo yomthetho idla ngokungazifumani iimpendulo ezichanileyo kwaye abantu abanolwazelelelo banokungavumelani ngokucaciswa komGaqo-siseko.

Impembelelo Yokubekwa Kwenkundla

Ukwenziwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kuchaphazela ngokubalulekileyo izigqibo zayo. Abameli baxhasa abagwebi, kwaye iNdlu yeeNkulumbuso iyabaqinisekisa, yenza inkqubo yokumisa kakhulu ngokwezobupolitika. Amatyala asebenza ubomi (ngokubhekiselele "kwihambo elungileyo"), abavumela ukuba bazimele geqe kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika kodwa kwakhona athetha ukuba ukumiselwa komntu ngamnye kungabumba umthetho womGaqo-siseko kangangamashumi eminyaka.

Ulungelelwano lwezimvo lweNkundla luchaphazela amatyala ekuvumelana nawo nokuva, indlela ewenza alungise ngayo imibuzo engokwasemthethweni, nemiphumo efikelela kuyo. INkundla elawulwa ngabagwebi abatyebileyo idla ngokufikelela kwizigqibo ezahlukeneyo kunalowo ulawulwa ngabagwebi abakhululekileyo, ingakumbi kwimicimbi erhabaxa efana nokuqhomfa, uvumo lwezenzo, amalungelo emipu, kunye nomgangatho wamandla karhulumente.

Noko ke, abagwebi abasoloko bevota ngokuqikelelwa. Maxa wambi bayabothusa oomongameli ababamiselayo, kwaye amatyala ngamanye angenza iminqophiso engalindelwanga. Iimbono zamalungisa zingaguquka ngokuhamba kwexesha, yaye uhlalutyo olungokwasemthethweni maxa wambi ludlulela ngapha nangapha kweendidi zengqiqo.

Imida Yamandla Eejaji

Ngaphandle kwamandla abalulekileyo ejaji, iinkundla zijongene nemiqathango ebalulekileyo. Zingagqiba kuphela amatyala neempikiswano, zinganikezeli iimbono ezingqinelanayo. Ziswele amandla okunyanzelisa kwaye zixhomekeke kwintsebenziswano yesebe eliphetheyo ukuze ziphumeze izigqibo zazo. Kufuneka ziqwalasele ukuba amatyala angoo"oknaye okanye amaqela anesi "ma" ukuqulunqa ityala.

Iinkundla zikwasebenzisa "ukuthintela isigwebo" ngokuphepha imibuzo engokomGaqo-siseko xa amatyala enokuconjululwa kwizizathu ezimxinwa. Bacinga ukuba imithetho ingumGaqo-siseko kwaye ifuna ubungqina obucacileyo phambi kokuyibetha phantsi. Le miqathango icetyisiweyo inceda ekulondolozeni ukufaneleka kwejaji kwaye igcine ikomkhulu layo elisemthethweni ukwenzela amatyala apho ungenelelo lomgaqo-siseko luyimfuneko ngokwenene.

IBhunga kunye namaphondo anokuphendula kwizigqibo zenkundla ngokulungisa umGaqo-siseko, nangona le nkqubo kunzima ngabom. IKhomishini iyakwazi ukumisela imigaqo yenkundla yorhulumente kwiimeko ezithile kwaye ingakwazi ukumelana nezigqibo zokuchaza umthetho ngokumisela umthetho omtsha.

Iingxaki Nempikiswano

Iinkundla zanamhlanje ziyaqhubeka ziphikisana nemibuzo esisiseko ngentsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko nangegunya lokugweba.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nemfihlo

Ubugcisa bamanani bunika imingeni emitsha yomthetho-siseko. IiNkundla kufuneka zimisele indlela yokukhusela uLawulo lwesine ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni okusetyenziswa ngayo kugcino-lwazi lweselfowuni, uthungelwano lwe-imeyili, nezinye iinkcukacha ze-apply. Kufuneka zilungelelanise izilangazelelo zobuqu kunye nokugcinwa komthetho ngokwemo-mo-mo-mfama.

Ukuthetha Kakhululekileyo Kwixesha Eliqhelekileyo

Iindawo zonxibelelwano zezentlalo-ntle ziphakamisa imibuzo malunga nomgangatho wokukhusela inkululeko yokuthetha. Iinkundla kufuneka ziqwalasele ukuba imigaqo yokuHlaziya Yokuqala isebenza njani kwaye njani ekusebenziseni ulwaneliseko kwiinkampani zabucala, ekumiselweni kwemithetho karhulumente yokuthetha kwi-intanethi, nasekusasazeni imicimbi ephosakeleyo. Le mibandela iphakamisa imibuzo esisiseko ngedemokhrasi, ngentetho yesidlangalala, nangendlela ezithengiswa ngayo iingcamango.

Ukudlulisela Amalungelo Nomthetho Wokhetho

Iinkundla zidlala indima ebalulekileyo kwiimbambano zonyulo, ukuphendula imibuzo ephathelele iinkqubo zokuvota, ukuhlahlela inkxaso-mali yephulo, ukungenelela kwezempendumiso, nokufumana inkxaso-mali. La matyala achaphazela ngokuthe ngqo ukuthatha inxaxheba kwedemokhrasi kunye nokumela i-politiki. Izigqibo zakutshanje ziye zathetha ngeemfuno zomchongi, nomlinganiselo woMgaqo-nkqubo wokuBonisa.

Urhulumente wolawulo

Amaqumrhu alawulayo anegunya elibalulekileyo lokwahlula amagunya nokuziphendulela ngokwedemokhrasi. Iinkundla kufuneka zimisele ukuba kungakanani ukuthoba isantya ekunikeleni intsingiselo yemimiselo nemimiselo. Amatyala akutshanje aphinde ahlolisisa iimfundiso eziye zamiselwa ixesha elide zokulawula ukuhlolisiswa kwamasebe.

Ukubaluleka Kokufunda Ngokusemthethweni

Ukuqonda amatyala abalulekileyo enkundleni nemigaqo emiselwe yiyo kubalulekile kubemi abanolwazi. Ezi zigqibo zichaphazela iinkalo ezisisiseko zobomi bemihla ngemihla .ukusuka kwizikolo kuya kukhuseleko olukhoyo xa kumangalelwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho, ukusuka kwinkcazelo yobuqu ukuya kubuchule bokuthatha inxaxheba kwiinkqubo zedemokhrasi.

Ukubhalisa nokubhala kunceda abemi balapho bahlolisise izigqibo zomthetho, babe nenxaxheba ngokunentsingiselo kwiingxoxo ezingendlela yokuchaza umGaqo-siseko, baze baphendule amagosa anyuliweyo ngokumisela kwabo ikomiti.

Iinkundla ziza kuqhubeka zibumba imithetho yethu njengoko zicombulula iingxaki ezintsha yaye zihlolisisa iimfundiso ezimiselweyo. La matyala axutyushwayo apha amela nje inxalenye yezigqibo ezibalulekileyo ezichaziswe ngumthetho-siseko waseMerika. Isizukulwana ngasinye sijamelana nemibuzo yaso engokomGaqo-siseko, kwaye inkundla kufuneka itolike imigaqo ehlala ihleli ngenxa yeemeko zanamhlanje.

Oovimba Bokufunda Okungakumbi

Abo banomdla wokuhlola amatyala encopho embali engowona mgaqo-mbali kwinkundla ePhakamileyo kubunzulu obungaphezulu, oovimba abaninzi bakhona. Iwebhsayithi ye- yase-U. inika izinto zokufundisa malunga namatyala abalulekileyo. [ Iprojekthi ye-Oyez[ inika uhlolo oluvakalayo lwengxoxo yempikiswano yomlomo kunye netyala elineenkcukacha. I-Constitution Ancopedition [ inika uhlalutyo olubanzi lwemimiselo lomgaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho ofanelekileyo.

Iincwadi zemicimbi yesikolo, uoncwadi bomthetho, neencwadi ezibhalelwe abaphulaphuli ngokubanzi zinikela uhlalutyo olunzulu lwemfundiso engokomGaqo-siseko. Iintlangano kulo lonke udidi lwezobupolitika zinikela ubuncwane bemfundo obubonisa iintanda-bulumko ezahlukeneyo. Ukusebenzisa iimbono ezahlukahlukeneyo kunceda abantu baqonde imibuzo entsonkothileyo yezomGaqo-siseko.

Isiphelo: Indaleko eqhubekayo yoMthetho womgaqo - siseko

Indima yenkqubo yokugweba ekulungiseni imithetho yethu ibonisa ukuma kolawulo lomgaqo-siseko. Ukusuka kwi-Marbury v. Ukusekwa kukaMadison kokuhlola okugwebayo ukuya kwiingxoxo zale mihla malunga nokuzimela kwamanani kunye namalungelo okuvota, iinkundla zisoloko zichaza imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko ukucombulula iingxaki.

Amatyala aphawulekayo ahlolisiswe apha abonisa indlela izigwebo zogwebo ezinokuguqula ngayo ibutho labantu, zikhusele amalungelo abantu, zize zichaze imida yamandla karhulumente. Abonisa ukuba umthetho womgaqo - siseko awumi nje kuphela kodwa uphuhliswa ngokuqhubeka uncokola phakathi kwabagwebi, amagqwetha, abaphengululi nabemi.

Ukuqonda la matyala nemigaqo ayimiselayo kunika abemi amandla okuba babe nenxaxheba kwidemokhrasi yomgaqo-siseko. Kunika ingqiqo yokuvavanya iimpikiswano ezikhoyo zomthetho nokuzimisela inkqubela yexesha elizayo. Njengoko iinkundla ziqhubeka zibumba imithetho yethu, ukubotshwa kwezigwebo ngolwazi kuyimfuneko ukugcina urhulumente wemithetho, kungekhona umntu ngamnye, nokuqinisekisa ukuba ukhuseleko lwemiGaqo-siseko luhlala luhleli kwizizukulwana ezizayo.

Amatyala achazwe apha ngezantsi. Ukusuka ekumiseleni uhlolo lomthetho ukukhusela amalungelo abantu, ukusuka ekuchazeni inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho ukuya ekuthetheni ngenkululeko yokuzala ngezantsi kukwahlula impembelelo enzulu ekhoyo kwiinkundla kubomi baseMerika. Asikhumbuza ukuba ukucaciswa komGaqo-siseko kubandakanya ukhetho olunzima ngokuphathelele imilinganiselo ephikisanayo kwaye abantu abanolwazelelelo bangaphikisana ngendlela yokulinganisela inkululeko, ukulingana, ukhuseleko, nezinye izilangazelelo ezisisiseko.

Njengoko kuvela imingeni emitsha kwaye iimeko zentlalo zitshintsha, iinkundla ziza kuqhubeka zichaza umbhalo womGaqo-siseko obhalwe kwiinkulungwane ezidlulileyo ukwenzela iimeko zale mihla. Imigaqo emiselwe kwiimeko eziphawulekayo inika ukhokelo, kodwa ukusetyenziswa kwazo kwiimeko ezintsha kufuna uhlalutyo nogwebo olucingisisiweyo. Ngokuqonda indlela iinkundla eziye zayitshintsha ngayo imithetho yethu kwixesha elidluleyo, sinokuyixabisa ngakumbi indima yazo ekuphenduleni imibuzo yomgaqo-siseko yanamhlanje nongomsongomso.