Urhulumente waseUnited States usebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yolwahlulo lwamagunya, uhlula igunya phakathi kwamasebe amathathu ahlukeneyo: uwiso-mthetho, umphathi, kunye nekomiti yokugweba. Esi sakhiwo, esisekelwe kwiincwadi zikaMontesquieu kwaye kamva sachazwa kwiManyano yoLuntu, senzelwe ukukhusela naliphi na isebe ekufumaneni amandla agqithisileyo. Ngothotho lweenkqubo ezaziwayo njengezihlolo nezilungeleleneyo, isebe ngalinye libeka elinye liba netyala, liqinisekisa ukuba linesantya esinamandla esiye sanyamezela ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Ukuqonda ezi zenzo zokuziphendulelamkelo-mthetho-siseko waseMelika kuyimfuneko ekuqondeni indlela esebenza ngayo, ukusuka ekuqhubeni imithetho kulawulo-demokhrasi ukuya ekusebenzeni kwayo nasekutolikeni kwayo.

Izifemi zomGaqo-siseko zadala ngabom urhulumente apho amandla ahlukeneyo kwaye ahlulwa khona. UJames Madison wabhala ngokudumileyo kuFederali No. 51 ukuba "iluvo kufuneka lwenziwe ukulwa namabhongo. Ngokunika isebe ngalinye umthi kwimisebenzi yamanye, inkqubo ikhuthaza ulawulo olumanyeneyo kwaye ithintele ubuzwilakhe. Eli nqaku lihlola izixhobo ezithile isebe ngalinye elizisebenzisa ukukhangela amanye, umongo wembali wala mandla, nendlela eliqhubeka ngayo ukulawulana namhlanje.

Isebe Elisemthethweni

Isebe lowiso-mthetho, eliyilwe ngokuyintloko yiKhonkxane (iNdlu yabameli neNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso), linembopheleleko yokwenza imithetho, ukuhlawulwa kwerhafu, nokuhlawulwa kwemali yesebe. Linetyala lesebe elilawulayo nelokugweba elineenkqubo eziliqela ezinamandla ezisekelwe kumGaqo-siseko kwaye eziphuhliswa ukutyhubela iinkulungwane ezimbini zokuqhelisa.

Ukulawula Nophando

IBhunga linegunya eliphangaleleyo lokuqhuba ukuchotshelwa nokuphandwa kwizenzo zesebe eliphetheyo. Lo msebenzi ubalulekile ekuqinisekiseni ukuba imithetho iphunyezwe njengoko kufunwa kwaye ukuhlawulwa kwerhafu kusetyenziswa ngokufezekileyo. Iikomiti ezikhoyo kuzo zombini iigumbi zibiza oonobhalane, iintloko-maqumrhu, namanye amagosa ukungqina. Banganyanzela ukuveliswa kwamaxwebhu ngezenzo zesebe eliphetheyo, kwaye ukungathobeli kusenokukhokelela ekudeleni inkcaso kwiBhunga loMbutho.

Imizekelo ephawulekayo yobuveleli iquka iinkundla zeNdlu yeNdlu yaseWatergate kwii-1970, ezabhenca ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwegunya ngurhulumente waseNixon, kunye nophando lwakutshanje kuhlaselo lweCapitol. Ulawulo lweBhunga lowiso-mthetho lukwadlulela kwisebe eligwebayo, ingakumbi ngokuphathelele ulawulo lweenkundla zemali. Ngolawulo lwalo lwemali, iBhunga elilawulayo linokuphembelela uqingqo-mali lweziko lwezikomkhulu kunye nejaji, linika ingcebiso elithe ngqo kodwa elinamandla kwizenzo zabo.

Inkcitho

Ukungacebisi kulolona luvavanyo lubalulekileyo olukhoyo kwiNgqungquthela. Indlu yabameli inamandla okungawasebenzisi amagosa karhulumente, kuquka umongameli, isekela lomongameli, kunye nabagwebi, ngenxa "yesizathu, ukunyoba, okanye amanye amatyala aphezulu kunye nokunganyaniseki". IBhunga liqhuba ityala, ngoko liqhuba ityala, ngesithathu esibini esifunekayo ukuze lithatyathwe lishenxisiwe lize lisuswe kwisikhundla.

Kuyo yonke imbali yaseMerika, le House iye yajika ityala labalawuli abathathu: uAndrew Johnson (1868), uBill Clinton (1998, kunye noDonald Trump (209 no-2021). Akukho namnye owagwetywa yiBhunga, kodwa le nkqubo ngokwayo isebenza njengendlela yokuthintela nokuphendula kukawonke-wonke. Elona tyala lidumileyo lishiyeka linguMongameli Andrew Johnson, owayalelwa emva kokwaphula umthetho we-Tenure of Ofisi. Kwisebe lejaji, abagwebi abalishumi elinesihlanu, abagwetyiweyo nabasibhozo barhoxiwe kwaye basusiwe. Eli gunya lokungakhuphi nanga kuqinisekisi ukuba akukho mthethweni okanye linguqulunqe ngumthetho.

Isiqinisekiso Sedinga

IBhunga leNtlanganiso linendima ebalulekileyo ekuhloleni isebe eliphetheyo ngenkqubo yokuqinisekisa. Umongameli uphakamiso-mgaqo-mrhumo ngesikhundla sobukhabhabhane, iinqanawa zolawulo zesizwe (kuquka iijaji zeNkundla ePhakamileyo), kunye nezinye iziphathi-mandla ezikumgangatho ophezulu zifuna imvume yeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso. Le nkqubo ivumela isebe lemithetho ukuba lihlolisise iimfaneleko, imvelaphi, kunye notyekelo lwezopolitiko lwamatyuwa ngaphambi kokuba lithathe isikhundla.

Inkqubo yokuqinisekisa iye yaqalisa ukuphikisana kakhulu kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje. Inkcazo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, ngokukodwa, iye yavusa iingxoxo ezikrakra, njengokuba iboniwe ngokungaphumeleli kokutyunjwa kukaRobert Bork ngo 1987 kunye noqinisekiso olunempumelelo kodwa olunempumelelo lukaBrett Kavaugh noAmy Coney Barrett. IBhahate inamandla okungamlamkeli ngokupheleleyo oono-minenee okanye abafileyo kwikomiti ukutyunjwa ngumongameli ukukhetha abathathi-kathi abaphakathi. Ngaphezu koko, iNxawa ingasebenzisa "avers" kwimingsssss ku-ammeeaeas ukukhupha imvume kwisebe eliphetheyo.

Amandla Okuthenga

IKhomishini ilawula yonke inkcitho yemali karhulumente ngamandla ayo okudlula amatyala entengiso. Akukho mali inokukhutshwa kuNondyebo ngaphandle kwengqungquthela. Oku kunika isebe lemithetho izixhobo ezininzi zesebe elilawulayo, njengoko lingaxhasa okanye linciphise iinkqubo ezithile, amaqumrhu, okanye amanyathelo okulawula. Amandla esipaji semali asetyenzisiweyo ukulinganisela ukubotshwa kwamajoni (umz., iSigqibo seWar Powerssion), ukuphelisa izenzo ezimbi zesebe eliphetheyo, kunye nokuvala imibambo yemibambo yocwangciso lukamongameli. Inkqubo yoqingqo-mali ikwabandakanya ukuhlolwa koqingqo-mali yonyaka, ivumela abenzi bemithetho ukuba bathethe nenkxandumiso.

Isebe Elilawulayo

Isebe elilawulayo, elikhokelwa ngumongameli, linembopheleleko yokumisa imithetho, ukuqhuba inkqubo yamanye amazwe, nokuyalela umkhosi.

Umbane weVeto

Umongameli unegunya lokulawula umthetho odluliswe ngamagumbi omabini eBhunga. Iveto ingangahliswa kuphela ngabaninzi abalishumi elinesithathu kwigumbi ngalinye, ekunzima ukufikelela kulo ``````Iiveto'''', kuphela limalunga ne 110 kuphela kwi 2,500 lee-vetoes ebezingachaphazeleki. I-veto ivumela umongameli ukuba athintele ukumiswa kwemithetho abayigqala njengengeyobulumko okanye njengesixhobo sokucenga-ngenelo; isisongelo nje se-veto enokuthi iphembelela ukuqulwa komthetho ngexesha lokudityaniswa.

Zimbini iintlobo zeveto: iveto eqhelekileyo nengxowa. Iveto eqhelekileyo ithumela uxwebhu emva kwiKhomishini kunye neemfuno zomongameli. Ingxowa yenzeka xa umongameli engasayisayiniyo kwientsuku ezilishumi ngelixa iBhunga lithulwa, ngokunempumelelo liyibulala ngaphandle kweveto esesikweni. I-roto i-'into' yavunyelwa kancinane kwi-1990 kodwa yabethwa phantsi yiNkundla ePhakamileyo njengengathanga mithetho-siseko. Oomongameli baye basebenzisa i-veto ukuvala ukuchithwa kwemali, umthetho wamalungelo abantu, kunye nokuphicotha komkhosi, kwezinye iindawo.

Imiqathango yecandelo

Umongameli angakhupha imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo yokwalathisa imisebenzi karhulumente wesizwe kunye nenkqubo yokusebenza ngaphandle kokulinda ukuphunyezwa kombutho womkhosi. Imiyalelo yolawulo oluphezulu inamandla kodwa iphantsi kohlolo lomthetho kodwa isenokupheliswa yiBhunga ngomthetho (ifanele ibekwe kwiveto). Isetyenziselwa ukwenza imisebenzi ephawula izinto ezifana ne-Emancipation Proclation, ukuphelisa umkhosi, nokusekwa kwezakhiwo zesizwe.

Imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo isisixhobo esinamandla somongameli sokubumba inkqubo kwimimandla apho iBhunga lingathanga okanye apho umongameli enesigqibo. Umzekelo, uMongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt wakhupha uLungelelo loLawulo oluPhezulu 9066, eyagunyazisa ukuququzelelwa kwamaJaphani ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi II, isigqibo esigwetywayo kamva kodwa sixhaswe ngexesha. Kutshanje, oomongameli baye basebenzisa imiyalelo yegunya ukuthetha ngokufuduka, umgaqo wemekobume, kunye nezonyango. Ngenxa yokuba imiyalelo yabalawuli besebe linokuphenduliswa ngumongameli olandelayo, badla ngokuba ngabalawulwa bempikiswano yezobupolitika.

Name

Inqaku II, iCandelo lesithathu lomGaqo-siseko linika umongameli amandla okuhlalisana kwazo zombini izindlu zeBhunga "ngezihlandlo ezingaqhelekanga". Ngoxa eli gunya linqabile ukusetyenziswa, livumela umongameli ukuba anyanzele iKhomishini ukuba ithethe ngemicimbi engxamisekileyo xa kuthe kwangethuba. Kwimbali, uMongameli uHarry Truman wabiza intlanganiso ekhethekileyo yeBhunga ngo-1948 ukuze athethe ngamalungelo abantu kunye nokunyuka kwamandla abo. Eli gunya liyiliso lokuqinisekisa ukuba isebe lemithetho-wistivo alinakusuka nje alityeshele imicimbi yesizwe ngokuhlala ephumla.

Amandla EPardon

Umongameli unamandla okuxolela nokukhulula amatyala karhulumente, ngaphandle kwakwiimeko zokungaqeshwa. Eli gunya livumela umphathi ophetheyo ukuba abonise inceba, alungise okungekho sikweni, okanye anikeze ingubo yokugweba. IPardons ingakhutshwa phambi kokuba naziphi na izityholo zolwaphulo-mthetho zibekwe kwaye zinokusetyenziswa ukukhulula izigwebo. Imizekelo engacacanga iquka uxolelo lukaMongameli Gerald Ford, uMongameli Jimmy Carter's's's Crefrearss for Viendffers of jamprs of Vietnam War, kunye noMongameli uDonald Trial Trump's uxolelo lwezinxulumani ezahlukeneyo. Amandla okuxolela angundoqo abekwe kwisebe lejaji, njengoko ingenakuyiva ityala kunye nezigwebo ezigwebi zenkundla.

Isebe Eligwebayo

Isebe lezomthetho, elikhokelwa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo kwaye elibunjwe ziinkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente, litolika imithetho, licombulula iimpikiswano, lize liqinisekise ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente zihambelana nomGaqo-siseko. Iinkqubo zalo eziphambili zokuphendula ngamandla okuhlola inkundla kunye nendima yayo ekutolikeni umthetho.

Impinda yezeejaji

Uhlolo lwezeejaji ngamandla eenkundla okuvakalisa imithetho kunye nezenzo zesebe elilawulayo ezingekho mgaqweni. Eli gunya lamiselwa kumqondiso wetyala Marbury v. Madison, apho iJaji ePhakamileyo uJohn Marshall yagxininisa ukuba "kugxininisa iphondo lesebe lezomthetho ukuchaza oko umthetho ukuko." Ukususela ngoko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yawisa amakhulu emithetho karhulumente nemithetho engqubana nomGaqo-siseko.

Uhlolo lwezomthetho lusebenza kwizenzo zowiso-mthetho nezezolawulo. Umzekelo, kumsebenzi wesininzi se-Stown Sheep & Tube Co. Sayer (1972), iNkundla yagqiba ukuba uMongameli Truman athathe izinyanzelo zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yeKhoreji engasetyenziswanga. [[FLT:] United States v. Nixon [1977], iNkundla enyanzelisayo ukuba aguqulele ukubhalwa kweteyikhophu, nto ikhokelela ekurhoxiseni kwakhe. Kutshanje, iNkundla icelele imiyalelo yezolawulo lokusebenza kokuthintela ulawulo, imimiselo yezolawulo, kunye nemithetho yokufuduka.

Ukutolikwa Kwemithetho

Ijudicary ichaza intsingiselo yemimiselo, imimiselo, kunye nezivumelwano. Iinkundla zixhomekeke kwiindlela ezahlukeneyo zokutolika, kuquka ukuguqulelwa kombhalo (ukubhekisa kwintsingiselo ecacileyo yombhalo) kunye ne-purposivism (uqwalasela injongo yendlu yowiso-mthetho). Umgaqo we stare decis ukhuthaza iinkundla ukuba zilandele umzekelo, zinike uzinzo kunye nokuxelwa kwangaphambili komthetho.

IKhomishini ingabhukuqa utoliko lwezomthetho ngokumisela umthetho omtsha, kodwa loo mthetho ngokwawo unokuba phantsi kocelomngeni lomgaqo-siseko. Ukuqhelisela, ukutolikwa kwemithetho kubumba iindawo ezinkulu zomgaqo-siseko, ukusuka kumalungelo abantu ukuya kumthetho wokuchasa uxwebhu. Umzekelo, ukutolikwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yeCommerce Claus ekwiimeko ezifana United States v. Lopez [19595]) ukunciphisa umlinganiselo wamandla karhulumente. Ngokufanayo, ukutolikwa kweNkuhlaziywa kweNkuhla yeSibi soLawulo Sesibini kwi-Complity V. [FLT][FLD] [2003:] [2008] wabetha uvimbano lwezimvo-kuviko eWashington, DC.

Ukukhuselwa Kwamalungelo

Isebe lejaji lidlala indima ebalulekileyo ekulondolozeni amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye norhulumente ngokuphazanyiswa. Ngezindululo zalo, iNkundla iye yandisa inkululeko yabemi, imigangatho emincinane, yaqinisekisa inkqubo efanelekileyo kubo bonke abantu baseMerika. Imibango ye-Landmark iquka Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], eyaphelisa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke, kunye imanda v. Arizona, eziseke imfuneko yamapolisa yokwazisa amalungelo abo. Inkundla ikwakhusela amalungelo asuka kwimfundiso equluntlukwano, isebenzisa uninzi lwamalungelo ka-Bill kunyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka onyaka-141.

Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikhuphe izigqibo ezingundoqo kwi-openthi yobuqu (kuquka amalungelo okuqhomfa [[FLT: 0]] Roe v. Wade kunye ne-Dobs v. Jackson Amabhinqa 'S Health Organization[[), ulingana komtshato ([[[FLT: 4]]] [Obergfell v. ], kunye nenkululeko yokuthetha ([[FLT]]] I-lignum-ecene [FLT]]).

Ukhangelo lwethutyana kunye noxinzelelo lwendlela

Ngaphandle komgaqo-siseko osesikweni, isebe ngalinye likwaphembelela abanye ngeendlela ezingacwangciswanga. Uluvo lukawonke-wonke, ukupapashwa konxibelelwano, amaqela ezobupolitika, kunye nenkqubo yoqingqo-mali yesizwe yonke imiba yolwalamano oluphakathi kombutho. Umongameli onemigangatho ephantsi yemvume angakufumanisa kunzima ukunyanzelisa ngomthetho okanye ngokuqinisekisa imigaqo ekhuselekileyo. Iingqungquthela zingasebenzisa amandla okuvelela ukuvelisa ukusasazwa okungalunganga kolawulo. Ijudicary, ngoxa igqunywe ngubomi, ihlala iphantsi komthetho wowiso-mthetho onokuthi uguqule isakhiwo sayo kunye nolawulo lwayo.

Ukongezelela, imigaqo yolawulo lorhulumente isasaza igunya phakathi korhulumente wesizwe namazwe, idala omnye umaleko wokuziphendulela. Oorhulumente baseburhulumenteni bangavavanya imithetho yorhulumente enkundleni, kwaye amagunya oMthetho weSihlalo seshumi elingagunyaziswanga eUnited States kwimimandla okanye kubantu. Oku kwahlula-hlula igunya ngokuthe ngqo kuphelelisa uvavanyo oluthe tyaba phakathi kwamasebe amathathu.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela phakathi kwamasebe amathathu karhulumente ibalulekile ekulondolozeni idemokhrasi nokukhusela ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwegunya. Isebe ngalinye linobuchule obukhethekileyo bokuphendula abanye, liqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linamandla kakhulu. Ukusuka ekujongeni kombutho wombutho kunye nokuququlunqwa kobungangameli, ezi zixhobo ziguqukile kwimbali kwaye ziyaqhubeka zibumba ummandla wezopolitiko. Ukuqonda ezi zenzo kubaluleke kubafundi nabafundisi ngokufanayo, njengoko zibalaselisa ukubaluleka kokudityaniswa kwezezezezezomthetho eUnited States. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo ngomgangatho wemithetho yezolawulo, inkqubo yokugweba, kunye nemiqathango efanelekileyo yemithetho yeBhunga ebonakalisa ukuba inkqubo yempatho ihlala ikho kwaye ikho.

"Uqokelelo lwawo onke amagunya, uwiso-mthetho, ulawulo oluphezulu, kunye nejaji, ngexesha elinye, nokuba ngowomntu omnye, omncinane, okanye omninzi, nokuba lifa, uzimisela, okanye unyulo, ngokufanelekileyo lungachazwa njengenkcazelo yobuzwilakhe. ” — James Madison, umanyano noNo. 47

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga i- i-Anvocation kuhlalutyo oluneenkcukacha lwamandla esebe ngalinye, ushwankathelo lwe-Marbury v. Madison, kunye nocamngca yendlu yeWhite House yamasebe amathathu .