Imvelaphi kunye neSizinzi soMgaqo-siseko soManyano-Mkhosi weSizwe

Ukhuseleko oluzimeleyo lwesizwe asingomsebenzi osungulwayo weli xesha; ingcambu yalo ibuyela kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, apho ukumkani wayengenakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe. Abameli bomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. bafaka uhlobo lwalo mgaqo kwiAleminth Amendment, egunyazisiweyo ngo-1795, ekwathi isalatha iinkundla zolawulo lwesizwe ekuvaleni iisuti “ziyekiwe okanye zigwetywe ngaphaya kombhalo oqhelekileyo kodwa zifakwe imfundiso epheleleyo yi-Paraties okanye yi-Patizensities okanye iziGacity okanye iziGaqu zabo kulo naliphi naliphi iLizwe Lasemzini. Engamileyo, iNkulela i-ancindi ye-mandend tracessss izise kwimo yayo ebekwe ngokuchasene neyabonke i-mthetho-mthetho-onke.

Oku kuthintelwa kufeza iinjongo ezininzi. Kukhusela ubuncwane belizwe ekuphazanyisweni, kulondoloza isidima sikarhulumente njengento ekhoyo engathi yesandisi-mpuluswa, kwaye kuqinisa ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi korhulumente wejaji nelorhulumente. Ukanti le mfundiso ikwadala ungquzulwano nemithetho yamalungelo abantu, eyenzelwe ukuthethelela amalungelo omntu ngamnye kwanaxa umchasi-mthetho engumlawuli.

Indlela Imithetho yamaLungelo aMasipala Emisebenzi

Imimiselo yamalungelo asekuhlaleni yamaFederal − eyintloko phakathi kwawo iSihlomelo VII soMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1949, iCandelo lowe-1934 loMthetho weKu Klux Klan, amaMelika anoMthetho (ADA), kunye neNkathi yeNkathi yokungakhubazeki eMsebenzi (ADEA), kunye neNkathi yeNkathi Yexesha Elitsha kuMthetho we-Ofisi (ADEA) ) , ukuze kupheliswe ucalucalu-calucalu-calucalu-calu-calulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, imibala, unqulo, imvelaphi yobuzwe, ukukhubazeka, ukukhubazeka, ukukhubazeka, kunye nokukhula. Le mithetho iqhele ukusebenzisa abaqeshi, inkxaso-mali-mali.

Igunyaziso liqhubekeka ngokusuka kumaqumrhu alinganayo e-Ofice Opportunity Commission (EOC) kunye neSebe leMisebenzi ye-Ofisi, kodwa ukumangalelwa kwangasese kusesona sithuthi siqhelekileyo sokuhlangula umntu ngamnye. Umqobo onzima ubakho xa ummangalelwa engurhulumente: ukhuseleko oluphezulu lungasivala ngokupheleleyo isuti ngaphandle kokuba iBhunga liye lakuphelisa ngokusemthethweni oko kuthintelwa okanye urhulumente.

Isakhiwo Sokuhluza Nokukrazula

IKhomishini ingawuphelisa umgaqo-siseko ogunyazisa ukhuseleko lombuso, kodwa kuphela ukuba iyazanelisa iimfuno ezimbini. Okokuqala, kufuneka ichaze ngokucacileyo injongo yayo yokudityaniswa kombhalo womthetho. Okwesibini, ukuhlahlela kufuneka kumiselwe ukupheliswa kwemithetho esemthethweni esemthethweni egunyazisiweyo ukunika igunya (ngokufuthi iCandelo 5 loMmiselo we 1449th Amendment Amendment, evumela iKhomishini ukuba inyanzelise iziqinisekiso zoMgqino zenkqubo efanelekileyo nenkuselo elinganayo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yabambelela ngokuphindaphindiwe ekubeni iNgqungquthela ayinako ukukhusela urhulumente phantsi koMkhosi ka Claus Claus kuphela, njengoko kumiselwe .[FLT] Florida v [FLT]96].[FLD]

Amazwe angawakhulula ngokuzithandela amagophe okhuseleko olulawulayo, mhlawumbi ngokuvuma ukuhambisana nombhalo wommiselo, ngokwamkela imali karhulumente (enokuthi ifike nemeko yokufaneleka), okanye ngokususa ityala kwinkundla yephondo. Noko ke, amatyala kufuneka abe “ocacileyo kwaye angabi nazingxaki” kwaye angabi nakuthathwa lula. Umzekelo, urhulumente owamkela imali yohola wendlela angathathwa njengonokhuselo lwe-ADA phantsi kwesihloko II, njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo iphawulwe kwi Board of Trusters of the University of Alabama. [[FLTB][FFLD:1] [2001]

Ityala Eliyintloko Ofanele Ulazi

Imithetho yeNkundla Ephakamileyo kule mbambano itshintshile kangangamashumi eminyaka. Nasi isigwebo esichaza indlela umhlaba omi ngayo:

  • [FLT ... FATPATrick v. [1976] INkundla yabambelela kwiNkundla yokuba iCongress ingazikhusela kwilungu lombuso elilawulayo xa isenza ukhuseleko lwecandelo 5 loMphetho we 1450, kuba oko kupheliswa kwenziwe ngokukhethekileyo ukumisela amandla ombuso. Le meko icwangcisiHloko VII sus nxamnye namazwe.
  • USiminole Frige of Florida v. Florida (1996]): Kwisigqibo seNkundla yagqiba ukuba iKhomishini ayinakusebenzisa iGaqo I (iSigqeba) njenge Claus okanye iBranchtcy Clause/to abrogate sokhuselo. Oku kwalinganisela ngamandla eKongress ukubeka phantsi kwemeko yokubeka ifashoni ngaphandle komxholo we 144.
  • KIMEl v. Ibhodi ye Florida yeRegents (000): INkundla yathi ukukhutshwa kokhuseleko lukarhulumente lwe-ADEA akusebenzi kuba ucalulo lobudala alunakuhlolwa ngakumbi phantsi kweSikhuseli esilinganayo sika Clause; ngoko ke iBhunga lalingenaso isiseko esaneleyo somgaqo-siseko sokukhusela ukhuseleko.
  • iBoard of Trust of Trust of Alabama v. Garrett (2001]: ngokufana Kimel, iNkundla yabetha ukukhutshwa kokhuseleko lwesizwe phantsi kweSihloko I se-ADA (imisebenzi), iqiqanda ukuba ucalucalulo lwesiphene alwamkeli uphando oluphezulu kwaye iBhunga lombuso alikhange libonise umlinganiselo wendlela yokuziphatha okungamiselwanga.
  • [[NTLT:0]ssee v. Inkundla () kwisigqibo, iNkundla ixhase iSihlomelo II se-ADA njengoko isetyenziswa kumatyala abonisa ilungelo elingundoqo lokufikelela kwiinkundla. Inkundla yahlula [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [FLT II]] ngokungaluphawuli uludwe olubanzi lwendlela yokuziphatha yesizwe kwaye iBhunga libhale ucalulo olusasazileyo kulawulo lwezobulungisa.
  • [FLT] United States v. Georgia (2006: INkundla yavumelana ukuba iSihloko II seADA esigunyazisiweyo simisela ukhuseleko lokhuseleko lwendlela yokuziphatha ephazamisana noMphetho weshumi elinesine qha, okuthetha ukuba ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente ngokuzimeleyo azingqubani nenkqubo efanelekileyo okanye zilinganayo, iADA ingasetyenziswa njengesicombululo.

Umahluko Phakathi Kwezihluzi Zomanyano Neenkundla Zenkundla

Okubalulekileyo kukuba, uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine lufanele kuphela imivalo echasene namazwana kuphela kwinkundla yetyala. Amazwe awazikhusela ngokuzenzekelayo kwiyunithi kwiinkundla zawo ngaphandle kokuba umgaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo yawo inika ukhuselo olunjalo. Onke amazwe angamashumi amahlanu anendlela ethile yokuzikhusela kolawulo oluphezulu, kodwa amaninzi aye adale i-othorivers qha kwizenzo okanye imithetho yamalungelo abantu.

Oku kuthetha ukuba ummangali-mthetho ongakwaziyo ukumangalela urhulumente kwinkundla yesizwe phantsi kweCandelo lowe - 1983 okanye i-ADA usenokuba netyala elisebenzayo enkundleni yephondo. Noko ke, iingxelo zenkundla yeli lizwe zisenokuba zilinganiselwe. Umzekelo, amanye amaphondo, abeka imimiselo emifutshane, okanye afune ukudinwa kwezolawulo ngaphambi kokuba afake ityala. Ngaphezu koko, imithetho yamalungelo abantu ayimele ibangele ukuba kuqhutywe inkundla yephondo ngaphandle kokuba iwise imvume ecacileyo yezo suti.

Izixhobo zokunyanzelisa amalungelo abemi xa iiMviwo eziBathintelayo

Ngenxa yemiqobo, abameli bamalungelo abantu namagqwetha abo baye bavelisa amanye amacebo okunyanzelisa amalungelo karhulumente nxamnye nabadlali basekuhlaleni.

1. Amagosa aseburhulumenteni abhudlayo kwimisebenzi yawo

Imfundiso yePhinda Imvume yeshumi elinesine ayiwanyanzelisi amagosa karhulumente ngenxa yokukhululeka okanye ngenxa yomonakalo ohlawulwa yipokotho yegosa. Ngaphantsi kwe Ex icandelo Young (08), i-partiff ingamangalela igosa likarhulumente ukuphelisa ukwaphulwa okuqhubekayo komthetho karhulumente. Lo ngumsebenzi oqhelekileyo okhoyo. Umzekelo, ibanjwa linganyuswa umgcini-ntolongo we-emoriva ye-incutive phantsi koMdalelo-ntle, nangona urhulumente ngokwakhe engenakugwetyelwa ukuva okokuba unyanzelekile.

2. Ukufuna Uncedo Ngezongxamiseko

Imimiselo emininzi yamalungelo abantu kufuneka abantu abavunyiweyo bafake isityholo kwisebe likarhulumente phambi kokumangalelwa. I-EEOC, umzekelo, ingaphanda, i-mediate, kwaye kwanamatyala angoorhulumente ngenxa yabaqeshwa. Ngenxa yokuba i-United States ayilawulwa yiSimemezelo seshumi elinesibhozo, isibonelelo singasizisa isenzo sikarhulumente ngaphandle kokuhlangabezana nomqobo wesonga-mthetho. Ngokufanayo, iSebe loLuntu linokuqinisekisa ukuba libandlulukele ucalulo lwemilinganiselo yemilinganiselo phantsi kweSihlolo se-I, i-ADA, neminye imithetho.

3. Isebenzisa iiKhomishini zaMalungelo oLuntu kaRhulumente

Urhulumente ngamnye unamalungelo abantu okanye ugunyaziso lwamalungelo abantu olunyanzelisa ukuba imithetho echasene nocalulo-calulo inyanzeliswe. Ngoxa imithetho karhulumente inganika unyango olufanayo nemimiselo karhulumente, isoloko ikhusela ulawulo lwezolawulo kwaye inokuhlawula imbuyekezo yokuhlawula, ukubuyiselwa, kwanokonakaliswa kwemali. AmaPlaintiff ngamanye amaxesha anganyanzeleka ukuba “afake iifayile eziqhelekileyo” kunye nogunyaziso lukarhulumente kunye ne-EOC.

4. Isuti yeNqamlezo eQhubeleyo kunye neSicwangciso-Somlinganiselo

Izenzo zodidi lwabucala ezichasene namagosa karhulumente ngenxa yokukhululeka okungenayo zihlala zisebenza. Kwimeko eziqhubekayo zezolwaphulo-mthetho . "ezifana nezobuzwe obungavumelaniyo nemithetho] kwiintolongo okanye ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizindlu zikawonke-wonke"isuti yodidi phantsi koMthetho 23 ingafuna ulawulo lwenkundla oluyalela amagosa karhulumente ukuba atshintshe iinkqubo. Ezi suti azithintelwanga kukukhuselwa ngokwasemthethweni kuba zijolise kumagosa angomntu ngamnye, kwaye urhulumente ngokwawo akangommangalelwa.

Iimpendulo Neenguqu Eziye Zacetyiswa Zingquzulwano

Uxinezeleko phakathi kokhuseleko olulawulayo kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abantu alukhange luphawulwe. Ekuhambeni kweminyaka, iBhunga liye laqwalasela umthetho ukwenza kube lula ukumangalela amaphondo ngenxa yokwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu. Umzekelo, uMthetho waMalungelo ka-2009, wachaza ukuba abasebenzi belizwe bangamangalelwa ngenxa yomonakalo kwinkundla karhulumente phantsi kweSihloko se-VII(*) kunye nesigqibo [[FLT: 0] iFItzpatric [FLT] esisele sivumile ukuba ukuhliswa okunjalo kwamalungelo abantu.

Kutshanje, uMthetho weRehabilitation Act ka 1973, olwalela ucalucalulo lweziphene nguwo nabani na owamkela imali karhulumente, uhlala unamandla ngenxa yokuba amaqumrhu karhulumente amkela imali kufuneka anikezele ukukhusela imali phantsi kweso senzo. Ngokufanayo, iNtsapho kunye ne-Medical Leact (FMLA) yafunyanwa yiNkundla ukuba ifumaneke ngokusemthethweni i-protectionation ye-“ecureation" yayo, kodwa hayi ukwenzela umphako wayo wezothulelo lentsapho, kodwa ukwahlukana okuqhubeka nokuvelisa i-ligitation ( Isebe leMivuzomivuzo., 2003, kunye [FLT:] iNUP] iNCOLEN [f]

Bambi abaphengululi baxhasa ukupheliswa komgaqo-siseko ukuze kupheliswe amaphondo okukhusela ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu, kodwa oko kuhlala kungenakwenzeka ngokwezobupolitika. Abanye bacebisa ukuba iKhomishini ilungelelanise ngenyameko imimiselo yamalungelo abantu kwixesha elizayo ibe liCandelo 5 loMmiselo wonyaka weshumi elinesine, ivelise ingxelo yomthetho yocalulo olusasazekileyo lwezorhulumente oluza kuxhasa ukuhlaziywa phantsi kovavanyo lweBoerne v. Flores [1997]]

Icebiso Elisebenzisekayo Kubantu Abanamagunya

Ukuba uligqwetha okanye uthethelela ukusingatha ityala lamalungelo abantu ngokuchasene nequmrhu lorhulumente, nantsi imibuzo ebalulekileyo ofanele uyibuze:

  • Ngaba ummangalelwa ‘ ngumhlaba” ukwenzela iinjongo zokuHlaziya kweshumi elinesine? amasebe kaRhulumente, iiyunivesithi zikarhulumente, nezibhedlele zikarhulumente zisoloko zikhuselekile, kodwa ubalo, izixeko, kunye neebhodi zesikolo azinazo. (Umthetho ngulokuba oorhulumente abakhuselwanga nguMphengululo weshumi elinesibhozo, kodwa imigaqo emiselwe ngurhulumente inokuba ifanele ukugwetywa.)
  • Ingaba umthetho ukhusela ukunqanda ukukhutshwa kwentambo? ukhangela ulwimi olucacileyo kummiselo, njengothi “Urhulumente akazukukhuseleka phantsi kolungiso lweshumi elinesithandathu....” Umzekelo weNkundla ePhakamileyo uza kukuxelela ukuba ukuhlawuliswa kuxhaswe kusini na ngenxa yalo mthetho.
  • Ingaba ukhuseleko lwesizwe lungamkelekanga? Khangela ukuba urhulumente udlulise umthetho ovumela ukufaneleka, okanye ukuba wamkele imali yemeko. Umzekelo, nawuphi na urhulumente ofumana imali yeMedicaid kufuneka akhusele ukhuseleko kumalungelo athile okhubazeko.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ungamangalelana negosa lorhulumente lokukhululeka? Le nto isoloko ikhona ukuba kukho ulwaphulo oluqhubekayo. Ungacela inkundla ukuba inike umphathi umyalelo wokunqanda uqheliselo lokukhupha imvume okanye ukunikezela iindawo zokulala ezifanelekileyo.
  • Ungawazisa na amatyala enkundleni karhulumente? Ukuba inkundla karhulumente ivaliwe, urhulumente wefolum anganika unyango", ngokukodwa ukuba urhulumente unomthetho wamalungelo abantu obanzi ogquma ihambo efanayo.

Ikamva Lokungavisisani Kolawulo Lwasebukhosini Namalungelo Asekuhlaleni

Ukuqanjwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo kuyaqhubeka kuguquka, kwaye amatyala okuzikhusela azimeleyo asoloko eqhekeka kwiimeko zengqondo. Kutshanje, iNkundla ibonise ukuvuma ukuxineneza umlinganiselo wokuzikhusela kwimfuno yezobungangamsha kwezinye iimeko, njengokuthi kuqinisekiswe ukuba amaphepha anokubekwa phantsi kwetyala phantsi kweBhankiptac Claus (] Allen v. Color, 2020], kodwa phawula iNkuphawula ukuba iNkundla yala ithelekele ukumiswa kwemimiselo apho, ishiya umbuzo uvulwe. Okwangoku, iNkumbuso iyavuma ukuba i-Indiya Cooperation Clausleastem ayiyini amandla okukhusela iproto yesizwe ([FLD2]]]M.ignoids.Bulls Burst:[2014]

Kubenzi bamalungelo abantu, isikhokelo sikukuba ukukhusela ulawulo lomntu akuyonto ibalulekileyo. Yimfundiso ecacileyo engokwahlukileyo kwizinto ezininzi ezingafaniyo nezisebenzayo. Ngokuqonda igalelo phakathi koMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesi-nye, uLawulo lweMpanzi weshumi elinesine, kunye nomthetho ngamnye wamalungelo abantu, abameli basenokufumana isiqabu esinentsingiselo kumaxhoba ocalucalulo.

Ukuze ufunde ngokubhekele phaya, bona [[FLT: 0] ICornell Information Institute yenkcazo yePrempment yeshumi elinesine kunye nentlawulo yeJaji yezokhuselo lobukhosi ishwankathelana [. Ukutshona okunzulu kwendlela yeNkundla ePhakamileyo, i-Oyez Project inika [[FLT:]] ingqhinga yemiba elingundoqo leSinyuso seshumi elinesihlanu [[FLT]].

Ekugqibeleni, unxulumano phakathi kwemithetho yokhuseleko lombuso kunye namalungelo abantu karhulumente lubonisa ukulungelelana okucwangcisiweyo phakathi kwamaxabiso omgaqo-siseko akhuphisanayo: isidima kunye nokuthembeka kwemeko entle yamazwe, kunye nokuzibophelela kwesizwe ekugwetyweni kobulungisa obulinganayo phantsi komthetho. Ukuqinisekisa oko kulungelelanisa kudinga ukufaneleka okusemthethweni nokuyila ubuchule obuqhelekileyo . Kodwa umlinganiselo wamalungelo abantu ubonisa ukuba ukoyisa amalungelo abantu nxamnye namazwe unokwenzeka xa abaxhasi bekhetha indlela elungileyo.