Kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni, ubungqina buyindawo esisiseko apho kuqulunqwa khona amatyala kwaye kugqitywe khona. Enoba kukho impikiswano phakathi kwamaqela azimeleyo okanye ulwaphulo-mthetho olubekwa ngurhulumente, ukuhlanganisa, ukuhlalutya, nokunika ubungqina iziphumo. Ukuqonda indlela obuqokelelwa ngayo kwaye busetyenziswe kumatyala oluntu nawamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho kubalulekile kuye nabani na ophulula inkqubo esemthethweni ("ooooooogxa-mthetho kunye namangqina kubantu ngokubanzi). Ubungqina obulawulayo buyilelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba inyaniso ithembekile, nokusukela inyaniso, kodwa bahluka ngokuphawulekayo kuxhomekeke kuhlobo lwetyala. Eli nqaku linikela ukujonga iindidi, iindlela ezigunyazisayo, imigangatho esetyenziswayo, kunye nocelomngeni oluvelayo kuzo zombini ulwaphulo-mthetho.

Ubungqina

Ubungqina buhlulwe ngokubanzi kwiindidi eziliqela, nganye ineempawu nemithetho eyahlukileyo yokungaguquguquki. Ngoxa ubuchule obusisiseko be-typy buquka ubungqina, imbonakalo, imbonakalo, isalathisi, kunye nobungqina bamanani, uqheliselo lwangoku lukwabonakalisa ezinye iindlela ezibalulekileyo ezifana nobungqina obungokwemiqathango, ubungqina bokwenene, kunye nobungqina benzululwazi.

Ubungqina Obungqinelanayo

Ubungqina obungqinelanayo buquka iingxelo ezenziwa ngamangqina aphantsi kwesifungo, enkundleni okanye kwimimiselo. Kuquka ubungqina obungqalileyo ngoko kwabonwa lingqina ngokwalo, kwakunye neembono zeengcali. Ukukwazi ukujikajika, inkumbulo, kunye nokucalucalula okunokwenzeka zizinto ezibalulekileyo ezicingwa ngabagwebi neejaji xa kuqwalaselwa ubungqina obusisiqinisekiso.

Ubungqina Obubhaliweyo

Ubungqina obubhaliweyo okanye oburekhodiweyo buquka nayiphina into ebhaliweyo okanye erekhodiweyo, njengezivumelwano, ii-imeyili, iileta, iirekhodi zezamayeza, abagcini-mashishini, kunye namaxwebhu karhulumente. Ukuqinisekisa ukuba anokuthenjwa, amaxwebhu kufuneka aQinisekiswe . Ngokukodwa ngokubonisa ukuba yiyo le nto umxhasi athi yiyo. Umthetho ongcono (Umthetho weFederal of Evidence 1002) ufuna ukubhalwa okanye ukuqokolelwa ukungqina oko kuqulekileyo ngaphandle kokuba umahluko uyasebenza.

Ubungqina Obuphathekayo

Bukho ubungqina obuphathekayo (okanye obuyokwenene) obunento ebonakalayo edlala indima engqalileyo kwiziganeko ezikwimbambano, umzekelo, isixhobo, isambatho, ukuphakamisa iminwe, okanye imveliso ekuthiwa ibangele umonakalo. Ubungqina obuphathekayo busoloko bunamandla kuba bunganikwa uvavanyo lwenzululwazi kwaye bucingelwa njengenjongo.

Ubungqina Obubonisayo

Ubungqina obubonisayo buyinto efuziselayo, njengemizobo, iimaphu, iitshati, oopopayi, okanye imfaniso yekhompyutha, esetyenziselwa ukunceda umqwalaseli wento aqonde obunye ubungqina. Ayithathi indawo yobungqina obuncinci kodwa inceda ekucaciseni izibakala ezintsonkothileyo.

Ubungqina Bamanani

Ubungqina bamanani buquka ugcino-lwazi oluvela kwiikhompyutha, kwii-cell, kwiinqwelo-mafutha, kwiinqwelo-mafutha, kwii-palettes, kwii-druid zezentlalo-ntle, nakwezinye izixhobo ze-elektroniki. Umthamo wazo, i-CM, i-EXIP kunye nentlobo-ntlobo zezixhobo zamanani zibangela iingxaki ezingaqhelekanga zokuqokelela nokugcina. IiNkundla zixhomekeke kakhulu kwi-akhawunti ye-amanani ukufumana iifayile ezicinyiweyo, i-mictameters ezifaka ubungqina kwi-data.

Ubungqina Obubalulekileyo

Ubungqina obuyintlukwano abungqini nyani ngqo kodwa buvumela ukuba isiqu senyaniso sibhekiselele kwimeko ezingqongileyo. Umzekelo, ukufumana iminwe yomntu othile kwimeko yolwaphulo-mthetho kusenokungangqinisi ukuba benze ulwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa bungasetyenziswa kunye nobunye ubungqina ukuqinisekisa ukuba bani. Ubungqina obuyinxenye buvumelekile kumatyala oluntu nawezaphuli-mthetho kwaye bungaxhasa ukumamela.

Ubungqina Benzululwazi Nobudala

Ubungqina obungokwenzululwazi buquka uhlalutyo lweDNA, ukusetyenziswa koomatshini bokukhupha igazi, uhlalutyo lwemitshini yegazi, iingxelo zetyhefu, kunye nokwakhiwa kwakhona kweengozi. Ukungaqiniseki kobungqina benzululwazi kwi-U.S. kulawulwa ziinkundla zephondo Daubert[ umgangatho (Umthetho weFederal of Evidence 702], ofuna ukuba inkundla isebenze njengomgcini-sango, iqinisekisa ukuba ubungqina obunobuchule busekelwe kwiindlela nemigaqo ethembekileyo. Iinkundla ezininzi zelizwe zilandela umgangatho okanye indlela elungeleyo.

Ukuqokelela Ubungqina Kumatyala Ezaphuli - mthetho

Inkqubo yokuqokelela ubungqina ekuphandweni kwezaphuli-mthetho ubukhulu becala yimbopheleleko yamasebe aqinisekisa ukugcinwa komthetho, kuquka amapolisa, iFBI, iDEA namanye amagunya karhulumente kunye norhulumente. Iindlela ezisetyenziswayo zixhomekeke ekuthintelweni okungqongqo komGaqo-siseko qha, ingakumbi ukukhuselwa koMgaqo-siseko weSine wokuHlaziywa nokuxhuzula.

Uphando Nokusabela Kokuqala

Xa kuxelwa ulwaphulo-mthetho, abaphathi-mikhosi bafika kwindawo, bakhusele ummandla, baqalise ukuqwalasela amaxhoba namangqina. Badla ngodliwano - ndlebe, babhale umboniso ngemifanekiso kunye nemizobo, baqokelele ubungqina obubububukhali ngaphambi kokuba lonakale. Impendulo yokuqala ibeka isiseko setyala lonke `izenzo zobungozi kweli qonga zingayekelela ubungqina kamva.

Ukukhangela Nokushenxisa

Ukunyanzeliswa komthetho kumele ngokuqhelekileyo kufumane isiqinisekiso sokuphengulula esisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo sokuba kuphengululwe ikhaya lomntu, inqwelo-mafutha, okanye omnye ummandla wabucala. Isiqinisekiso kufuneka sichaze ngokukhethekileyo indawo ezakuphendwa nokubanjwa kwezinto. Ezikhethekileyo ziquka imvume, iimeko ezichaphazelekayo (umz., ukusukela ngokushushu okanye ukutshatyalaliswa okukhawulezileyo kobungqina), imbono ecacileyo, ukuphendla isiganeko sokubanjwa, kunye nokuchasana kwemoto. Ubungqina obufunyenweyo ngokuchasene noMthetho weSihlanu sokuHlayishwa bungasetyenziswa, nangona ngaphandle komthetho olungileyo wokholo olukhoyo.

Ingcebiso neeNkxaso

Ukuphindwa kwabarhanelwa, abanobuzala okanye abagwebi, kufuneka bavumelane noMphetho-mda wesihlanu noweSithandathu. Izilumkiso ze-icononic Miranda . Ilungelo lokuhlala buthule kunye nelungelo lokuya kwigqwetha (ilungelo) phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya. Iintetho ezenziwe ngokungenankathalo, ngokunyanzelwa okanye ngezichemo ezingafanelekanga, azinakuthenjwa. Ukuncinwa kwenkundla kukwisigaba esiphezulu apho kuye kwenzeka khona ukuvunywa kwezobuxoki, ngoko ke imimandla emininzi ifuna ukubhalwa kwemiba ye-elektroniki.

Uhlalutyo Olubugocigoci

Ubungqina obufunyenwe kwimifanekiso yolwaphulo-mthetho buthunyelwa kwiilaboratori zolwaphulo-mthetho ukuze zihlolwe. Iinkqubo eziqhelekileyo ze-operansic zeDNAprofilic, ukuthelekisa iminwe, uhlalutyo lwezixhobo, ubuchule bokuchonga izixhobo, unyango lweziyobisi, kunye ne-akhawuntal e-attics. Ukuthembeka kwezi ndlela kuye kwahlolisiswa kwiminyaka yakutshanje, nto leyo ekhokelela ekuguquleni inzululwazi yezolwaphulo-mthetho. I-National Academy of Sciences nezinye iziqumrhu ziye zakhuthaza uphando olufanelekileyo kunye nolawulo lomgangatho wokuthintela iinkolelo eziphosakeleyo.

Izixhobo zokutsala zamanani kunye nobuninzi bombane

Ngokunyuka kolwaphulo-mthetho lwamanani, ukunyanzeliswa komthetho kusebenzisa isiqinisekiso sokuphengulula iikhompyutha kunye neecell phone, iirekhodi ezivela kwiiselm (CSLI), kunye ne-geneanfering zifuna ukuchonga izixhobo ezikufutshane nemifanekiso yolwaphulo-mthetho. Ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo kufuna imigangatho ephezulu. "Isihloko III se-Omnibus Crime Control kunye ne-Defic Streets Act" kufuneka igunyazwe ngumgwebi ekubonisweni kwesizathu sokuba ulwaphulo-mthetho oluthile lwenzekile. Ukutshintshwa kwamazwe ngokukhawuleza kumacala angoolwazi olungoomatshini kufuna utshintsho oluqhubekayo kwiinkqubo.

Uludwe Nobungqina Obucacileyo

Ukuzingca kwamangqina okubona kusenokuba namandla kodwa kuyaziwa ngokungekho ngqiqweni. Ukunyanzeliswa komthetho kufuneka kulandele ezona zinto zilungileyo: ulawulo oluphindiweyo olumfama-mfama (omphathi-mikhosi oqhuba umgca akamazi ukuba ngubani lowo ukrokrelekayo), ukuphepha amagqabaza avuselela inkanuko, nokurekhodwa kwale nkqubo. INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ibambelele kwelokuba iinkqubo ezikhuthaza inkanuko ziyayichasa inkqubo efunekayo ukuba zidala amathuba afanelekileyo okungachasana.

Ukuqokelela Ubungqina Kumatyala Aseburhulumenteni

Kwizityholo zoluntu, ukuhlanganisana kobungqina kuqhutywa kakhulu ngamaqela ngokwawo kwinkqubo esesikweni ebizwa ngokuba kukufunyanwa, elawulwa yiFederal Migaqo yeProcedire (kwinkundla yephondo) kunye nemithetho efanayo karhulumente. Injongo kukuphepha ukumangaliswa xa kuchotshelwa ityala kwaye ukuvumela icala ngalinye lilungiselele ityala lalo.

Izixhobo Zokukhangela

Uphando luquka izixhobo eziliqela ezisetyenziswa ngamagqwetha ukufumana ubungqina kumaqela aphikisanayo namaqela esithathu:

  • Imibuzo ebhaliweyo emele iphendulwe phantsi kwesifungo, eqheleke ngokubhekiselele kwi ngamashumi amathathu (kwinkundla yesizwe).
  • [[UMTL: 0] Izicelo zoPhuhliso lwamaxwebhu: Iimfuno zoxwebhu olukhankanyiweyo okanye ulwazi olugcinwe ngekhompyutha (ESI). Le yindlela yokuqala yokufumana uxwebhu olubhaliweyo.
  • Izicelo zemvume: iingxelo omnye umntu amele azivume okanye azikhanye; ulwamkelo lungamka luphinde lungene.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Imvume:[ ubungqina obungoomlomo obuthatyathwe phantsi kwesifungo ngaphandle kwenkundla, phambi komcholacholi-ndaba wenkundla. Amagqwetha avumela ukuhlolisisa ulwazi notshixo lwamangqina.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Imiyalelo yomthetho enyanzelisayo engeyoyalungu leqela ukuvelisa amaxwebhu okanye ukungqina ekugcinweni.
  • [[UMTHLO] Uhlolo lwenzululwazi kunye nolokucinga: Kwimeko zomonakalo wobuqu, umbutho usenokufuneka ukuba unikezele kuvavanyo lwezamayeza oluzimeleyo (IME).

Imfihlo

Uhlaziyo lwale mihla lubandakanya ubuninzi obukhulu bolwazi olugcinwe ngomatshini. I-e-firey ifuna amaqela ukuba aqonde, aqokelele, aqokelele, avelise, kunye ne-ESI. Imithetho yomanyano lwemithetho yeNkqubo yeThumbi iye yalungiswa ukuze kulungiswe ukulungelelaniswa kwe-(-umlinganiselo wokufunyanwa kufuneka ulungelelaniswe kwiimfuno zemeko, uqwalasela umlinganiselo wempikiswano, ukubaluleka kwemiba, kunye nobuncwane bamaqela.

Ukufunyaniswa Kochwepheshe

Amangqina aphambili kufuneka atyhilwe, kwaye iingxelo zawo kufuneka zibe nengxelo epheleleyo yazo zonke iimbono, isiseko nezizathu zazo, ugcino-lwazi oluqwalaselweyo, kunye neemfaneleko zengcali. Iqela elichasayo ngoko lingasusa ingcaphephe. I-Daubert[[FL:1] umsebenzi wokugcina amasango udla ngokudlala ngexesha lokufunyanwa, ngokuhamba ungayifaki ubungqina obungolwazi phambi kokuvavanywa.

Ukungachaseki Nokusetyenziswa Kobungqina

Xa kuqokelelwe ubungqina, ukusetyenziswa kwayo enkundleni kuxhomekeke ekuzaliseni imithetho yobungqina . Ngokucacileyo iMithetho eBanzi yoBufakazi (FRE) kwinkundla yephondo kunye nekhowudi zesizwe ezihambelanayo. Umxhasi kufuneka abonise ukulungelelaniswa (FRE 401) kunye nexabiso le-probative alibalwanga kakhulu likhethelo olungafanelekanga, ukudideka, okanye ukuchitha ixesha (FRE 403).

Ukuva Neendlebe Ezikhethekileyo

USeedsay − nengxelo engaphandle kwengxelo yenkundla enikelwe ukungqina inyaniso yemeko iqinisekisiwe (FRE 802). Kodwa kukho iingxelo ezininzi ezingafaniyo, ezifana neengxelo zonyango, iingxelo zezoshishino, amazwi avuyisekileyo, kunye neengxelo ezichasene nenzala. Ukuthembeka kwezi zishicilelweyo kuxhomekeke kwizithethe ezibhaliweyo zomthetho. Kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, u-Clausce (uMphetho we-Sikhuseli) ubeka ezinye izikhuselo: ihemu elivela kumntu ongabakho ekumangalelweni ngaphandle kokuba ideclarantsssss angenakho kwaye ummangalelwa wayene ithuba langaphambili lokunqamla ([[FLD:]] Craw [FLD]]

Ityala Lokugcinwa Kwelungelo Lomtshato

Ukuze ubungqina obuphathekayo bungakholeleki, umxhasi kufuneka abonise ukuba ubungqina abukhange butshintshwe okanye buguqulwe. Oku kufuna uxwebhu lwabo bonke abantu abasingatha ubungqina, iimeko ababebugcine phantsi kwazo, kunye naziphi na izinto ezidluliswayo. Kwimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, ingtshutshiso kufuneka isoloko ibiza amangqina ukuseka itsheyina lentolongo; kwiimeko zamakhaya, imilinganiselo engqongqo encinci isenokusebenza (umz., iirekhodi zeshishini). Ukuqhawuka kwetsheyina kusenokuchaphazela ubunzima kodwa hayi ukubuchanabeka phantsi kwetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho.

Umthwalo Wobungqina Nemilinganiselo

Uxanduva lobungqina lwahlukile ngokuphawulekayo phakathi kwamatyala oluntu nawamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho:

  • Ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho: Ityala kufuneka lingqine zonke izinto ngaphandle kokuthandabuza okufanelekileyo. Lo ngumgangatho ophezulu kwinkqubo yomthetho, ubonakalisa iziphumo ezimandundu zokholo.
  • Iimeko zeCivil: I-paltiff isoloko ithwala umthwalo wobungqina ngokuqwalasela kwangaphambili ubungqina(i.e, inyani kunezo zingachananga. Ezinye iingxelo zasekuhlaleni (umz., ukuqhatha) zifuna ubungqina obucacileyo nobugqwesileyo, umgangatho ophakathi ophezulu.

Ngenxa yemithwalo eyahlukileyo, ubungqina obusenokuba banele kwityala lasekuhlaleni busenokuba alwanele ukuxhasa ityala lolwaphulo - mthetho.Ngokomzekelo, ummangalelwa ogwetyiweyo ongobulawayo usenokuphulukana nelungelo lokubulawa ngokuphosakeleyo lentsapho yexhoba esebenzisa izibakala ezifanayo ezisisiseko.

Ukuboniswa kwe Jury

Ama-athorney asebenzisa ubungqina bokuxelela abachopheli-tyala ibali elinobungqina obungqinelanayo. Ubungqina bokubonakalisa buluncedo ngokukhethekileyo kumatyala anzima. Abagwebi benza imithetho ngokuchasa (ukuphikiswa, ukuva indlebe, ukukhokela) ngexesha lokuvavanywa. Omabini amacala angathatha inyathelo lomgwebo njengomcimbi womthetho ukuba ubungqina abunelanga. Emva kokuchotshelwa, abachopheli-mli-mbhi abasekelwe kuphela kubungqina obunikiweyo ngezantsi ulwazi olungaphandle luvumelekileyo.

Ubunzima Obukhoyo Kubungqina

Phezu kwazo nje iinkqubo ezicokisekileyo, ubungqina obuqokelela intaphane yeengxaki ezinokuchaphazela imiphumo yemeko.

Imiqathango engokwasemthethweni namalungelo omGaqo-siseko

Imithetho yolawulo lokufuna nokuqhwalela ingqwalaselo ephambili isenokuthintela ukuqokelelwa kobungqina. Umthetho weSine Somndululo othintelwe ekufuneni okungekho ngqiqweni ufuna imvume yokuphengulula kakhulu; ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni bungapheliswa. UMthetho wesihlanu Wokwenziwa komthetho ochasene nokuzidityanisa uthintela ukunyanzeleka kobungqina. Kwimeko zasekuhlaleni, imfundiso yemveliso kunye nelungelo elisemthethweni likhusela izinto ezithile ekufunyanisweni.

Ukuhlala Uhleli KwamaNgqina Neembambano Zenkumbulo

Inkumbulo yamangqina ayachaphazeleka yaye anokungcoliswa yimibuzo ephambili, ukuchanabeka kwamajelo eendaba, kunye nokudlula kwexesha. Ngokufanayo, amangqina angoovimba angoovimba asenokuzichaza ngokuphosakeleyo iziganeko. Ubungqina obucacileyo bokungakhunjulwa kwenkumbulo bungavunywa kwezinye iindawo. Iingxelo zokuchana kwemigwebo zidla ngokuba yeyona nxalenye inzima yetyala.

Iintsebenziswano zenzululwazi engokweenkcubeko

Izithethe ezininzi ze-fonsic . "njengemicroscopy yeenwele, ukuzoba ingcaciso, kunye nohlalutyo lwezixhobo zezixhobo zokulwa."Azikho iimpazamo ezikhoyo kwiziphumo zenzululwazi. I-FBI iyavuma ukuba iimeko zohlalutyo lweenwele zixhomekeke kwiimeko zobugcisa. Ngoku iSebe leSizwe lifuna imilinganiselo engqongqo ukwenzela ubungqina bokuhlahlela. Ukuhlahlela iDNA ityhile imiba yenkqubo eqhubeka ilungiswa ngotshintsho olufana neKhomishoni yeNational Commission on Forensic Science."

Ubuntlola bobungqina bamanani

Ubuninzi obupheleleyo bobungqina bamanani − ii-email, imibhalo, ii-metadata, ukugcina amafu, ukwenza uhlolo kunye nemveliso exabiso. Amaqela anokuzama ukufihla okanye ukutshabalalisa ubungqina be-elektroniki. Amaqela achasene nobuchule bokusebenza kwe-odoli kunye nokukhutshelwa kolwazi oluchanekileyo kwenza kube nzima. Izibophelelo zokulondoloza imicimbi zifuna amaqela ukuba anike isaziso sokugcinwa kwento ngokusemthethweni kwaye athintele ukukhutshwa kwento ezenzekelayo. Izibolo zokuzinzisa ziqheleke ngakumbi njengoko iinkundla zicinezela umsebenzi ukugcina iEI e.

Ixabiso kunye noMandla

Kumatyala oluntu nawolwaphulo-mthetho, iqela elinezinto ezimbalwa linokuzama ukuqokelela ubungqina. Abakhuseli boluntu abasingatha imithwalo enzima basenokungabi nabenzi-tyala. Abasebenzi baseburhulumenteni basenokungakwazi ukuthenga imali eninzi yokufumana izinto ezixabisekileyo . Ezifana nemali efunyenweyo okanye iindleko zobuchule. Iinkqubo zolwaphulo-mthetho zingagxininisa kwiindleko ezithe ngqo, kwaye iinkundla zingamisela umda ukufunyaniswa phantsi komgaqo wokulungelelanisa.

Ukuqwalasela Okufanelekileyo

Abalawuli banemisebenzi yokuziphatha ukugcina ubungqina, baphephe ukubhambathiswa, kwaye abangeni kumangqina angoyikiyo. Imithetho yemodeli yeNdlela yoPhatho loOchwepheshe ifuna ukusetyenziswa kakuhle nehambo eyinyaniso. Ubungqina obuchaphazelekayo bukwaphulwa okunzulu kwemilinganiselo yokuziphatha okungakhokelela ekudibaneni nasekutyholeni.

Isiphelo

Ubungqina bungundoqo wetyala ngalinye elingokwasemthethweni. Ukusukela ekuhlanganiseni kokuqala ngokugcinwa komthetho okanye ngokufunyanwa kwabemi, ukusa kwimilinganiselo engqongqo yokungaguquguquki nokunikezelwa kolwazi lokugqibela kwijaji, inyathelo ngalinye lilawulwa yimithetho eyenzelwe ukuqinisekisa ubungqina obusesikweni, ukuthembeka, nokusesikweni. Umahluko phakathi kwamatyala angoonotyala nabaphuli-mthetho. (ukubekwa kwemiqathango, iindlela zokuqokelela, kunye nokukhusela komgaqo-siseko, kwaye indlela obusetyenziswa ngayo ubungqina. //itsha) njengoko ubugcisa butshintsha kwaye ukuqonda okungokwenzululwazi kuyakhula, inkqubo yomthetho kufuneka iqhubeke ilungelelanisa iindidi ezintsha zobungqina kunye neengxaki. Ukuqonda ngokucokisekileyo komthetho kubalulekile ukuze kuthathwethwele nabubulungisa, kwaye nabani nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela iinkundla ezigqiba ngayo ukuba iziphumo zeengxaki.

Ukufunda ngokubhekele phaya, bona imithetho esesikweni yobungqina (iCornell LII) kunye ne ABE- Icebo elifunyanisiweyo[.