IXesha langaphambili: Ama-United States njengooSomandla

Ngaphambi kwenkulungwane yama-20, iBhili yamaLungelo yayiqondwa njengeseti yommiselo karhulumente kuphela. UMGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo, njengoko wabhaliswa ngowe-1787, wawungenawo umthetho wamalungelo, kwaye izindululo ezamkelwayo ngowe-1791 zayalelwa ngokucacileyo kwiBhunga loMgaqo-siseko: “IKonsoli ayisayi kwenza mthetho ...” (IsiHlamkelo sokuqala). Urhulumente wahlala ekhululekile ukuseka iinkonzo zabo, intetho ethintelwe, iqhuba ingxengxelo engafanelekanga, kwaye wakhanyela abamangaleli bolwaphulo-mthetho — konke okungazange kuqululwe ngumthetho womthetho woburhulumente wokuqala, apho amagunya akhuselweyo kunye namagunya esizwe ayelinganiselwe, athelekelelwe.

Incam yotshintsho yafika ngokudityaniswa koMphetho-mvakalo weshumi elinesine ngonyaka ka1868. I- Imodeli yeNkqubo kaClaus yavakalisa oku: “Akukho Rhulumente iya kuhlutha namnye umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho. [Ngamashumi eminyaka, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yalwa noluvo lokuba eli binzana linokuthatha imbono yokuba“indawo ekhethekileyo” amalungiselelo akhethekileyo avela kwiBhili lamaLungelo nxamnye namazwe. Kumthetho] IMacawa-ndlu-ndlu [187] [7]), iNkuqale ukusebenzisa enye iNkuNkundla, ichaza ngokushwadayo amalungelo ekhethekileyo okanye i-Immastiaste, ngokufanelekileyo njengenkqubo yezithuthi. Imoodromassss. Imook elungele ukusetyenziswa kwayo.

Ukuzalwa koHlolo loHlomelo oluKhethiweyo: Gitrow v. New York [1925]

Imfundiso yale mihla ye- ekhethelwe inemvelaphi yayo ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yama-20, xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqalisa ukuhlolisisa enoba amalungelo asisiseko adweliswe kwiBhili yamaLungelo aye akhuselekile na yi-14neth Amend Amendment. Ityala elichithweyo laliyi-[FLT:] Getlow v. New York, 268], U.S 652 [1925]. uBenjamin Gitlow, int, isoli, yagwetywa phantsi kwenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho waseNew York ngenxa yokupapasha okubonakala kuvela ukubhukulwa kukarhulumente. Inkundla yaxhasa ukufumanisa kwakhe ingozi ecacileyo nethetha ngokucacileyo, kodwa yavakalisa ukuba “intetho ecacileyo, i-exoxinze phakathi kwe-groxinayo, kunye namalungelo e-ognontive nge-erleease."

Loo ngxelo yayibubugcisa idictum (intetho eyenziwe ngokudlula), kodwa yabeka isiseko sotshintsho kumthetho-siseko waseMelika. Okwesihlandlo sokuqala, iNkundla yavuma ukuba ilungelo elikhethekileyo elisuka kuMphetho-mda wokuqala osetyenziswa kumazwe. Kodwa iNkundla ayizange isebenzise lonke iBhili yamaLungelo ngexesha elinye. Endaweni yoko, iqhubekeka ngokomzekelo, ngokukunene — ngenxa yoko igama elithi “ukhetho."

Kutheni “Kubalulekile” Kunokuba“ Kubekho Ababalulekileyo”?

UJaji John Marshall Harlan (umdala) wayencomele ukuququzelelwa ngokupheleleyo ngamaLungelo okanye ngama-Immunitis Claus, kodwa imbono yakhe ayizange ilawule uninzi. Kamva, uMgwebi uHugo Black waxhasa ngokupheleleyo ukuququzelelwa nge-Century Processous, ephikisa ukuba uLawulo lweshumi elinesine lokuHlaziywa kwale mithetho lucetywe ukusebenzisa iBhili-Rhovisi yamaLungelo kumazwe. INkundla ayizange ivume ukuba ikhethe indlela yokulungelelanisa eyayivumela ukuba ikhethe okanye ikhethe amalungelo “aphambili kwicebo lokusesikweni laseMelika." njengomphulo, amalungelo athile — njengeyesiBili lokuHlaziselo lokuGalisa ilungelo lokugcina nokuthwala iintambo — ayizange ifakwe de kube ngowama-2010, ngoxa abanye, njengeGrand Clascaus of the 550, esuntstst, esuntlunqeni kule mini.

Izinto Ezibalaseleyo: Ukususela KwimiHlonzo Yesine Ukuya KwimiHlonzo Yesithandathu

Emva Gitlow, iNkundla yandisa ngokuthe ngcembe uluhlu lwamalungelo adityanisiweyo, ingakumbi ngexesha leNkundla yaseWarren (1953-1969). Ngezantsi amatyala ophawu aguqula kwakhona inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho nokukhululeka kwabemi.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Umthetho wobuNtloko Uphenjelelwa eUnited States

[[FLT:]] Igosa elingumnqakathi -Mapp v.Oo , 367 U.S.61], iNkundla yathi uLawulo loMphetho-Mda] [[[FLT:]] ukhuseleko lokukhusela ukuphengululwa okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhwala —⁠ kwaye ulawulo lokuzikhululayo (ukufumana ngokungekho mthethweni akunakusetyenziswa ngokusemthethweni ekuvavanyweni) — lusebenza kwiinkundla zetyala. [[FLT:] [FLT:]] [FLT]] [5], luchaza ukuba kusetyenziswa ngokukhululekileyo ubungqina ukuba imithetho yabo ikuvumela ukuba bavumele. Umthetho owemapu ngenxa yokuba nezinto ezingcolise oko kufunyenwe kukhangelo lwamapolisa olungekho mthethweni. Inkundla ephakamileyo yeNxokelelwayo, i-Fod Kractic Tromessss, i-Dod Diectionment, i-Dod Trectionctionction inguectionctionction

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Ekunene kwiSicelo

Clarence Earl Gideon, ibanjwa elihlwempu laseFlorida, wabongoza iNkundla Ephakamileyo ngempikiswano emfutshane ebhalwe ngesandla yokuba wayekhatyiwe uHlaliso lweSigqibo lwecebo lokuvavanya. Gedeon v. I-Wainwr , 372] U.S. 335 [1963]), iNkunye ukuvumelana ukuba ilungelo lokunceda icebiso kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho liyilungelo elingundoqo, eliqukiwe nge-1449 IsiHlazi-Gempele. Ngoku kufuneka linikeze igqwetha ityala elijongenezolwaphulo-mthetho ezinzulu ezingenakukwazi ukukhusela iinkqubo zolwaphulo-mthetho kwelinye ilizwe kunye netyala.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Ilungelo lokuhlala uthulile

Mhlawumbi eyona ndawo edumileyo yokuququzelela, i-Miranda v. i-Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (196), isebenzisa [ uHlaziyo lweNkqutyana [ ilungelo elichasene nokuzifaka ngokwayo uxanduva. Inkundla ifuna amapolisa ukuba azise izikrobisa ngamalungelo awo (iiicebo eliqhelekileyo) phambi kokuba ibuze. Isigqibo sathi nzulu sithandazwe ngexesha, sigxekwe ngokunyanzelelwa kwemithetho yesandla. Kodwa sikhuselwe kakhulu kwimpucuko yaseMelika kangangokuba izilumkiso zisemgangathweni kwimifanekiso eshukumabhabhabhabhayo nekatho. [FTLD][5] [FT]

Ukuhlahlela okuHlakulelweyo kweNkundla yaseWarren

  • IsiHlalisi soMgqibo sokuqala:[ Intetho (] IGitlow), cofa ([[FLT:]] metal nearv. Minnesota[[[FL:5]], 1931, ingqungquthela (] Jonge v. Oregon[, 1937, ukuqhelisa unqulo ngesisa ([FLT:]] Canetwell v.Connectic[[FL:], 1940]), ukusekwa konqulo ([FLT:]], ukumiswa kwezemfundo yemfundo yemfundo yezemfundo [FFFFF: 10]], 1947,[FY],[FLD]
  • [[FLT: 0] IsiHlalisi soMphetho-moya: Ukuvavanywa kwesantya kunye noluntu ( Klopefer v. North Carolina, 1967), isalathisi esingakhethiyo ([[[FLT:]] DUNT] v. Louisiana[FLT], 1968], ungquzulwano lwamangqina ( Point unv. Texas, 1965), inkqubo enyanzelisayo ([FLT].[FLT]]
  • [[UMTL: 0] Ukuhlaziywa koMphetho-mbindi:[ Isohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga ( Robinson v. California, 1962).

Inkcazo yeNkqutyana eKhethekileyo vs. Iyonke

IJaji iHugo Black ngokungaguqukiyo yaphikisa ngelithi i-Acts of Demendment of Acception yeshumi elinesine ye-Claus yayinzelwe ukuquka iBhili yamaLungelo epheleleyo nxamnye namazwe — ngokunjalo, ngokungaphantsi. Wayekholelwa ukuba ukuququzelelwa ngokupheleleyo kwakuzakuthintela ukubekwa kweNkundla “ukungaguquguquki ngokwezimo zengqondo” uvavanyo lwe-[FLT] Dincan v. Louisiana (1968), Mnyama wabhala ngoPrompla: “Ndingalandela ulwimi olucacileyo loMmiselo woLawulo lweNkulungisa nokufaka uvavanyo lwamalungelo eNkundleko lwe-145".

Uninzi, lukhokelwa yiJaji Byron White, endaweni yoko luye lwaqhubeka nohlobo olukhethayo, luhlolisisa ukubaluleka kwembali kunye nokusebenza. Ingxoxo yaphakamisa umbuzo onzulu wentanda-bulumko: Ingaba iNkundla ikulungele ukumisela inkululeko, okanye inganyanzelisa umgangatho olinganayo wesizwe wenkululeko? i-equationtion of the Justice Black iphumelele ngomhla, kodwa ukungavumelani kweJaji kaBlack kusene. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngelithi i-hoc, nangona “ikhathazeli-'kl''i-'i-'al''''. I-'i-aknayinyanzelisa'''', okanye inganyanzelisa i-kungagunyaziswanga amalungelo. Umzekelo, uhlazinziso lwesiBili lokuHlamlamkelo lwahlala lungadityaniswa ukususela ngomhla we-1791 de [[FLDic0].[FFoct1] [20] [20], nangona i-uhlulo lwasekunene luye lwazingth , alwayo ngokokutshotsho

Amalungelo Angenazintlu - njyutha: IOrentia Neengakumbi

Alukho ilungelo elikhoyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo eliye lasetyenziswa kumatyala. Inkundla ebalaseleyo ibekwe i-Fort Camplete yeGrand Jury Claus[[FLT]], efuna amatyala anzima asemthethweni aqalayo ngetyala elikhulu. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ebanjelwe [[FLT:] [FLT]] [5] ibandakanya [[FLT] [12] [iiNkqutyana]] [i-188] [1] [1884] ifuna ukuba uMthetho woMthetho ka-Clatho ka-Claske] ingathethi ukuba usebenzise amatyala amakhulu. [iiiindlela ezininzi zisebenzisa “inkqubo ezinkulu zejaji.[FLT] ngokufanayo, [FLT:] [FT] [4] [impect:5] i-endlandla yoxolo loxolo loluntu [i.[5]

Izicelo Zangoku Nemibuzo Engagqitywanga

Ukukhetha ukuqulunqwa kuqhubekeka ukuyila ukhuseleko lwamalungelo abantu kwinkulungwane yama-21, ngokufuthi kumongo wenoveli abasebenzi befreyimu babengenakulindela.

Imicimbi yobucala namalungelo okuzala

Ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa — nangona lingakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo — iye yagqalwa njenge- “imvume” umdla okhuselwe yiMpanziswano weshumi elinesine. Griswold v. Connecticut[ (65]), iNkundla yagalela ukuvalwa kokuthintela ukuthintelwa, ukukhupha isigqibo kumali emtshatweni. [FLT] [12:] R [5], i-FLT, yesithathu, neyesihlanu Izinyuko.] Kamva, [[FLT:]] v.[5] [iiiiiiindawo engaphezulu] [[FLT]][3] umgaqo othenjiweyo, kodwa umahluko wendlela elungele ukuphumayo.[5], unyuso , unyusonyuso , umba othe wandisa ukuzala.[5]

IsiHlaliso sesibini emva [koMTHWALO]

Ukufakwa kweSigqibo sesibini soMphetho-mvaba . Ukususela ngoko, iinkundla ezisezantsi ziye zangqubana nomgaqo-siseko wemithetho yolawulo lwemipu — njengomthetho wokuhlasela, imiqathango yezixhobo, kwaye igcine imiqathango yemiqathango kamagazini. INkundla ePhakamileyo ibambe ukuba ingumlinganiselo wezokuthwala iingalo zokuzigcina nokuphatha izixhobo zayo ngokwayo ingundoqo ingundoqo kwaye isebenza kwilizwe kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Ukususela ngoko, iinkundla ezisezantsi ziye zangqubana nomgaqo wemithetho yemipu — njengoko izixhobo zokuhlasela, imiqathango yezixhobo, imiqathango yelizwe, kwaye igcina imiqathango yemiqathango yemiqathango. Inkundla ePhaka ephezulu yezomthetho ekhupha imipu enzima kunyakathobalwa kuyo yonke imithetho ekhoyo. IBruptrum-od

Ukuzimela Kwamanani Nohlaziyo Lwesine

Ubugcisa bezi mini buphakamisa imibuzo emitsha kulwazi lwendawo yeselula edityanisiweyo yesine IsiHlaliso. Cartenter v. United States [2017], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi urhulumente usoloko efuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana indawo ye-data ye-cell — nangona ugcino-lwazi lwaluphethwe liqela lesithathu (inkampani yemfono-mfono-mfono). Isigqibo saxhomekeka kuMphetho wesi-Dintshi sesine njengoko ifakwe [[FLT]] , kodwa lusebenzisa umxholo wamanani amanani amatsha. Ngokufanayo, inkundla ngoku ijongeneengxelo efana nokusetyenziswa kwamapolisa kwipleyibhusayithi ye-atho, i-dron, kunye ne-Plancence. Ukuqinisekisa oko kungenakugwetyeniswa ngokulula ngobuchule; ukusetyenziswa kobugcisa nokusetyenziswa kolwazi oluqhelekileyo.

Ilungelo Lokwenza Imisebenzi NesiHlomelo Sokuqala

Nangona kungeyonto yonke enxulumene nokuvota efakwa phantsi kwesivumelwano esinye, ukhuseleko loMphetho wokuqala lwentetho yezobupolitika kunye nomanyano, oluqukiweyo ngamatyala anjenge Denge v. Oregon [1937], luye lwasetyenziswa ukubetha imithetho yesizwe ethintela ukufikelela okanye ukukhutshelwa kwemali yezemali yezempepho. Umzekelo, [[FLT:]]] ukwandisa i-United. FEC[FLT][FT] [3] [0]) — ityala lombuso — iNkukhupho isebenzisa ngokuchasene nemithetho esemthethweni kwinkcitho yezopolitikizo ezizimeleyo. Isigqibo siqhubeka sithetha ngoko imithetho ephantsi kwengqiqo. [FTNT]

Iinketho kunye nokusikelwa umda kokuKhetha

Ngaphandle kwempumelelo yayo, ukuququzelela okukhethiweyo kuye kwasolwa. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi indlela yokuzilungisa ikhokelela ekuzikhuseleni: kutheni ilungelo lokuchophela amatyala kwityala labemi (iSinyusi seshumi elinesixhenxe) lingaqukwanga ngokupheleleyo, ngoxa ilungelo lokululeka (uMphengululo weSixwethu)? Ukuthembela kweNkundla ku-“kulunga-ntle ngokwezimfantu” kuye kwatyholwa ukuba ulandela uvavanyo — ukubonakaliswa kwemilinganiselo yobulungisa kunokuba kuchazwe ngumgaqo-siseko. Umthetho woqobo ofana noClarence Thomas Thomas uthethelela ukuquququzelelwa [[FLT: 0] Priges okanye i-Immunion Claus , endaweni yoko, okunokuvelisa ukubekwa kwamalungelo (kuquka nentsingiselo yasekunene) kunye nokugcina izibo zolawulo zasekunene.

Enye i-critique ibhekiselele kwi- i-federalist : ukudibanisa okukhethiweyo kunamandla angundoqo eWashington, ukunciphisa amandla karhulumente okuvavanya ulawulo olwahlukileyo olusemthethweni. Umzekelo, amaphepha akasakwazi ukuphinda akhethe ukuvumela uphengululo olungagunyaziswanga olungavunyelwayo oluya kuvunyelwa phantsi komthetho karhulumente kodwa lwaphula umthetho weSine. Abaxhasi bomthetho wolawulo baphikisa ukuba uvuselelo lwexesha langaphambili lokwahlula-mthetho luvumeleka ukuba kwenziwe umgaqo wolwaphulo-mthetho kwimilinganiselo yasekuhlaleni. Noko ke, uphaka kwamazwe amacala e-mthetho — enziwe ngokugcinekileyo — kukuba amalungelo akufunekangathotyelwanga phantsi kwemeko-nkulu; enyani ayiyiyo ukuba imeko elungileyo inokuthatha indawo.

Isiphelo: Ilifa Elingapheliyo

Ukuqulunqwa okukhethiweyo kukwakhiwe ngokusisiseko kolawulo lwamazwe aseMelika kunye nokhuseleko lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ngokusebenzisa ngokuthe ngcembe iBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yenza umgangatho olinganayo wenkululeko yesizwe — umgangatho oqhubeka unyuka njengoko kuvela iimeko ezintsha kunye nobugcisa. Kodwa inkqubo ayigqitywanga. INkundla ayizange ilawule ukuba [[FF]] iSibonelelo sesibini [FOL: 0]] uKhuselo olupheleleyo lwendawo yokhuseleko [[F] [[5] [F]] [5] [5] [F], iyakukhusela i-ExptP] njengeexpt prompt? "[4]

Le mfundiso ingqinelana nokuvumelana komGaqo-siseko. Kunokumisela imiqathango emileyo yorhulumente ngowe-1868, abaqulunqi benkqubo yeSinyuso seshumi elinesine bayila “inkqubo elungele ukutshintsha” yolwimi oluye lwasetyenziswa yiNkundla ukuphefumla ubomi kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Njengokuba iinguqu zebutho labantu, ukuqulunqa okukhethayo kuqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko engundoqo yokuthetha, unqulo, umatshini, ingqungquthela, inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nemfihlo zihlala zinyanzelekile kuwo onke amacandelo karhulumente. Yisizathu le mfundiso iqhubeka ibumba amalungelo afanelekileyo asekuhlaleni asekuhlaleni asekuhlaleni asekuhlaleni — kwaye kumele kuhlale kukho inxalenye ebalulekileyo yomthetho-Mgaqo-siseko waseMelika ukwenzela izizukulwana ezizayo.

Ukuze ufunde ngokubhekele phaya, bona iProject [[FLT: 0] kwimfundiso yokwahlula-hlula kunye [[FLT]] neSincoko seNkonzo yophando lophando kuMngxuma we 144th We Amendmente Indawe Yodweliso Ilindelekile Clausle.