Umsebenzi Wokunyamezela: Indlela UmGaqo-siseko Oyilondoloza Ngayo Inkululeko Yakho Yobuqu

UmGaqo-siseko waseUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788 kwaye walungiswa amaxesha angamashumi amabini anesixhenxe, umi njengomthetho ophakamileyo welizwe. Ungaphezulu nje kwemithetho emiselweyo yokulawula; yisakhiwo samabomu enzelwe ukukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye ekungeneni kwegunya likarhulumente. Kubafundisi-lwazi nabafundi, beqonda indlela olukhusela ngayo inkululeko yobuqu ukuze baqonde idemokhrasi yaseMerika ngokwayo. Uphando olandelayo uchaza iinkcukacha zeenqobo, umongo wembali owababumba, kunye nezindululo ezithi zigcina zifanelekile.

Isiseko Sokhuseleko: Isiseko Samalungelo

Xa umGaqo-siseko wokuqala wabhaliswa, abameli kunye nabemi abaninzi babesoyika ukuba urhulumente omtsha welizwe ungenza izinto ezifana nezobuzwilakhe baseBritane. Ukuphendula ezi zinto zixhalabisayo, iBhunga lokuqala lacebisa uthotho lwezi mvume, ezilishumi kuzo ezavunywa ngowe-1791. Ngokudibeneyo, ezi zaziwa ngokuba yiBhili yamaLungelo. Babala ngokucacileyo inkululeko engundoqo yokuba urhulumente akanakuphazamisana nayo.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Iliwa Lenkululeko

UHlaliso Lokuqala ludibanisa inkululeko ehlanu eyahlukeneyo kodwa edityanisiweyo: unqulo, ukuthetha, ushicilelo, indibano kunye nesibongozo. Ukumiselwa kuka-Claus kuthintela urhulumente ekumiseni unqulo olusemthethweni, ngoxa i-Free Expressice Claus ikhusela ilungelo labantu lokusebenzisa ukholo lwabo. Inkululeko yokuthetha iquka nangaphezulu kwezenzo zomfuziselo, ukuqhankqalaza kwezobupolitika, kwanezinye iindlela zokuthetha, nangona inemida enjengehlazo nokukhuthaza ugonyamelo. Umatshini okhululekileyo usebenza njengendlela yokuhlola igunya, uvumela intatheli ukuba zinikele ingxelo ngemisebenzi karhulumente ngaphandle kokuzilawula. Ekugqibeleni, amalungelo okuhlanganisa ngoxolo nokubongoza urhulumente ukuba alungiselele abahlazizo, nangona kukho imijelo engqalileyo kwimibutho kawonke-wonke.

UMthetho Wesibini Wokwenziwa Komthetho: Ilungelo Lokuthwala Izixhobo

ISiphendu sesibini sithi: “I-Militia elawulwa kakuhle, eyimfuneko kukhuseleko loRhulumente okhululekileyo, ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha Iizixhobo, ayizukumonyulwa.” Ukutolikwa kwayo kuye kwaphikiswana kakhulu. [Ku] i-Diality of Columbia v. [iNkundla ePhakamileyo] [2008], iNkundla ePhakamileyo iqinisekisa ukuba ukunqandwa kwetyala kukhusela ilungelo lomntu lokuba nezixhobo zokuphatha ngokwesithethe, njengawethumba ngaphakathi ekhaya, engadityaniswanga nenkonzo kwi-drumpyubhu. Lo mthetho awukhange unike ilungelo elingagwetyelwanga; iNkundla iyavuma ukuba ukwamkelo olude lukhusele iinqweqweni okanye ulwaphulo-mthetho, ingumelwano-ogrome.

IsiHlomelo Sesithathu: Ukukhusela Ukulawula

Nangona kunqabile ukubekwa, uMmiselo wesiThathu woMyalelo uthintela urhulumente ekunyanzeleni abemi ukuba bangene kwindlu yamajoni ngexesha loxolo ngaphandle kwemvume yabo. Yayiyintsabelo engqalileyo kuqheliselo lwamaBritane ngexesha lobuthanga. Oku kuguqula kugxininisa umgaqo wokuba ikhaya lomntu lingcwele ekungeneni korhulumente.

Uhlaziyo Lwesine: Ubuqu Nonqabiseko

UHlaziyo lwesine lukhusela abemi ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzuleni. Lufuna ukuba abanyanzeli bomthetho bafumane isiqinisekiso esisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo, esixhaswa sifungo okanye isifungo, kwaye bachaze indawo ezakukhangelwa kunye nabantu okanye izinto eziza kuthinjwa. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iinkundla zisebenzise olu tshintsho kubugcisa obutsha, njengokusetyenziswa kwemiba, njengokufumana i-cell-eafoni yendawu, kunye nokuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi. Amatyala afana katz. United States (1967) zaqinisekisa ukuba ukuHlunyuselwa kweSihlanu kukhusela abantu, hayi iindawo ezithile, kwaye ukulindela okusengqiqweni kwendawo eyimfihlo.

IsiHlaliso sesihlanu: Inkqubo efanelekileyo nokuzithethelela

IsiHlaliso sesihlanu siqulethe iinkuselo ezininzi ezibalulekileyo. IGrand Jury Claus eqinisekisa ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu lwamaqumrhu karhulumente lufuna ukutyholwa ngokusemthethweni yinkundla enkulu yabachopheli-tyala. I-Jeopardy Claus ePhinda kabini ithintela umntu ukuba avavanywe kabini ngenxa yetyala elifanayo. Ukuzithethelela ngelinye icala ku-Iasel-Iscale kunika abantu ilungelo lokuhlala bethulile kwaye akunyanzelekanga kungqinelwa ukuba banikele ubungqina nxamnye nabo. I-SSEARMTES Claus Claus ayivumi ukuba urhulumente angamniki nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla engenayo imigaqo esemthethweni. Ekugqibeleni, ukuthatha uClaus efuna urhulumente ukuba anikeze imbuyiselo xa kufunwa ipropati yabusstiki yomntu othile ukuze asetyenziswe nguwonke wonke.

IsiHlomelo Sesithandathu: Amalungelo Afanelekileyo Etyala

IsiHlamlisi seSithandathu siqinisekisa ukumangalelwa kwetyala elikhawulezayo nelinobudlelane liqumrhu labachopheli-tyala abangakhethi-cala kwisithili apho ulwaphulo-mthetho lwenziwe khona. Kwakhona linika ummangalelwa ilungelo lokuxelelwa ngendalo kunye nonobangela wetyala, ukumangalela amangqina, ukufumana uncedo, nokufumana uncedo lweSiluleko lokuzikhusela. Ilungelo lokucebisa landiswa ngokuphawulekayo [[FLT: 0] Gideon v. Wainright [1963], nto leyo ethetha ukuba kunikelwe amagqwetha abamangali abangenakukwazi ukuwathenga.

Uhlaziyo Lwesixhenxe: Izilingo Zomtshato

UHlomelo lweSebethi lugcina ilungelo lokuchophela ityala labachopheli-tyala kumatyala asekuhlaleni apho inani lempikiswano lingaphezulu lee-dola ezingama-20. Likwaqinisekisa ukuba izibakala ezigqitywe ngabachopheli-mthetho azinakuphinda zihlolwe nakweyiphi na inkundla yesizwe ngaphandle kokuba ngokwemithetho eqhelekileyo.

Uhlaziyo Lwesibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Uhlaziyo lwesibhozo lukwalela ukusetyenziswa kwebheyile eninzi, intlawulo egqithiseleyo, nesohlwayo esigqithisileyo nesingaqhelekanga. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yasebenzisa eli binzana ukucel ’ umngeni izenzo ezinjengokubulala abantu abaneziphene zengqondo, ukubulala abantwana, nokubeka ubomi ngaphandle kokukhulula amatyala angeyonto awenziwe ngabancinane. Isohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga singumlinganiselo obonakalisa ukutshintsha kwemilinganiselo yebutho labantu.

IziHlayiso Zesi - 1000 Nezeshumi: Amalungelo Afanelekileyo Nezikhundla Zoluntu

ISimemezelo se-Ninth sithi ukubekwa kwamalungelo athile kumGaqo-siseko akuyi kuthathwa njengokukhanyela okanye ukuhluza abanye abantu. Oku kusebenza njengesikhumbuzi sokuba iBhili yamaLungelo ayigqeba; abantu ngabanye abanamalungelo awongezelelekileyo angadweliswanga. UMthetho weSibonelelo weshumi oLandlisiweyo awugunyaziswanga eUnited States nguMgaqo-siseko, okanye awuvunyelwanga nguwo eUnited States, elandelela eUnited States, okanye kubantu.

Inkululeko Yobuqu Engundoqo Ikhuselwe NgumGaqo-siseko

Ngaphandle kwamalungelo acacileyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo, umGaqo-siseko ukhusela inkululeko ebanzi yobuqu ngokubhaliweyo kwayo nangenkcazelo yayo egwebayo.

Inkululeko Yokuthetha Nehambo Ebonakalisa Isidima

UHlomelo Lokuqala lukhusela kungekuphela nje amagama athethwayo kodwa kwakhona imisebenzi ebhaliweyo, intetho yobugcisa, izenzo zomfuziselo (njengokutshiswa kweflegi okanye ukunxiba amabamba), kwaneentlobo ezithile zephulo elichithwayo. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba intetho yenkululeko ibalulekile ekuzikhuseleni, ekufuneni inyaniso, nasekuzilawuleni. Noko ke, iindidi ezithile zentetho `ezifana nokukhuthaza, ukuhlanjalazwa, ukuhlazisa, ukulwa kwamagama angcolileyo, kunye nokulwa nalukhuseleko. Umgca ophakathi kokuzikhusela nokuthetha okungakhuselekanga uyaqhubeka usulungeniswa kwimibaliso yezobugcisa, njengesixhobo sokubala nokuhlasela abantu.

Inkululeko Yonqulo: Abambini AbanguClaus

UMthetho woLawulo Wokuqala woMphetho ka-1999 uphendule u-Claus. Ukumiselwa kweNkundla ka-Claus kuyalela urhulumente ukuba angavumeli okanye akhethe naluphi na unqulo. Lemon v. KuKurtzman[ (1971], iNkundla yadala uvavanyo lwenxenye emithathu (uvavanyo lweLemon) ukuvavanya ukuba umthetho uyawuphula lo myalelo. [Inkululeko yokusebenza konqulo] ikhusela ilungelo labantu lokusebenzisa unqulo lwabo, kodwa ayizizo zonke ihambo yonqulo ezithi zikhuselekile kwimithetho esebenzayo. [[FLT.FLT:] I-Employment Revision Direct. [1] Inkundla ye-Activection] (199090), inkundla yowiso lwemithetho elawula i-Octivences Couragetivence) yalo Reformation (ictivectioneded Resourvetion) yalo Refection Remous) yalorection. (19 `Ad Re

Ndinelungelo Lokuzifihla

Nangona igama elithi “umthetho” lingaveli kumGaqo-siseko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba ilungelo lokuzimela wedwa liboniswa ziziqinisekiso ezikwiyokuqala, eyesithathu, eyesine, eyesihlanu, eyeNhlanu, neyeshumi elinesine. Eli lungelo liye laba semgangathweni ekuwiseni uthintelo ([] iGriswold v.Connecticut[, 1965]), ukuqhomfa ( Roe v. [iindlela] ingunxa-mbilini yomtshato, i-1979], ingunyaka-1979], kunye nemibango-enye elandelayo ([FLT] .[FLT]

Inkqubo elindelekileyo: Iprocedual kunye ne-Substant

ISiHlayisho seNkqutyana seNkqutyana ka-Claus yesihlanu sisebenza kurhulumente wesizwe, ngoxa uLawulo lweSinyuso seshumi elinesine luludlulisela kumazwe. Inkqubo yesithethe efunekayo ifuna ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente ezichaphazela ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ziqhutywe ngesaziso esifanelekileyo kunye nokuva okunentsingiselo. Inkqubo efunekayo engaphantsi kwe-Accessistation Claus ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleni urhulumente, kwanokuba iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo ziyalandelwa. Le mfundiso isetyenziselwa ukukhusela ilungelo lokutshata, ukuba nabantwana, ukwenza izigqibo zonyango, nokukhokela abantwana.

Ukukhuselwa Ngokulinganayo Phantsi Komthetho

ISinyusi- Amereka seshumi elinesine soKhuselo oluManyeneyo luka-Claus sikwalela ukukhanyela nabani na ongaphakathi kwigunya lakhe ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho. Eli binzana liye laba sisiseko semithetho yamalungelo akwisibonelelo sabemi, kuquka Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], eyaphelisa ucalucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo, kunye bergefell v. Hodges[ (20)., esemthethweni ekwamkele umtshato osusela phambili. Iinkundla zisebenzisa amaqondo ahlukeneyo okuncitshiswa kuxhomekeka (uhlulo, ubufana nocacimbini, njlwn.) kunye nokunene.

Amatyala Abalulekileyo Enkundla Ephakamileyo Aphembelela Inkululeko Yobuqu

Iinkcazelo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ziphengulule ubukhulu becala zalatha umgangatho kunye nentsingiselo yamalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Ngeli ngezantsi kukho amatyala awongezelelekileyo angaphaya kwalawo adweliswe kwinqaku lokuqala.

  • [Mapp v.Oo (1961): Wasebenzisa umthetho wokususwa kwelizwe, ufuna ukuba ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokukhangela okungekho mthethweni kunye nokuxhuzula bungakhutshwanga ekuvavanyweni.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): kumiselwe ilungelo lokunika icebiso kubamangalelwa abangenwayo kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho.
  • [[NTLA:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Kuyimfuneko ukunyanzelisa umthetho ukwazisa abakrokrele ngelungelo labo lokuhlala bethulile nokuba negqwetha elikho ngexesha lokuncinwa kwegunya.
  • New York Times Co. v. United States (1971]: Wala kwangaphambili uthintelo kwimveliso yePentagon Papers, eqinisekisa ukusetyenziswa ngamandla nxamnye nohlalutyo lukarhulumente.
  • United States v. Nixon (1974): Ilungelo elisikelwe umda, elawula ukuba umongameli akanakubugodlela ubungqina ekuphandweni kwezaphuli-mthetho.
  • [[FLT: 0] Texas v. Johnson (1998): Ijikelele ukuba ukutshisa iflegi yaseMelika njengendlela yokuqhankqala kukhuselwe intetho yokomfuziselo phantsi koMgqino-mva wokuqala.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ulwaphulo-mthetho j. Texas (2003): Ukurhoxa phantsi umthetho waseTexas ophazamisa ubudlelane obufanayo, ukuqinisekisa ilungelo kwi-engasese.
  • I-Citizens ye-United j. FEC (2010): Ilawula ukuba inkxaso yemali yenkampani yezandiso ezizimeleyo zezobupolitika kunyulo olufuna ukunyulwa ayinakulinganiselwa, phantsi koMgqibo wokuqala wokuLandlwa kweMithetho ekhululekileyo yeMithetho yokuthetha.

Indlela UmGaqo-siseko Ozivumelanisa Ngayo Nokuguquka

Ukunyamezela komGaqo-siseko kuxhomekeke kububhetyebhetye. Inkqubo yokulungisa ivumela utshintsho oluqhelekileyo, ngelixesha ukutolikwa kwetyala kuvumela ukuhambelana kwezinto eziphilayo kwimeko ezintsha.

Inkqubo Yokulungiswa

Inqaku V loMgaqo-siseko lichaza iindlela ezimbini zokulungisa intelekelelo: ngevoti ezimbini-ntathu kuzo zombini izindlu zeBhunga okanye ngendibano ebizwe ziindlu zowiso-mthetho ezimbini ezizii-3. I-Ratiation ifuna imvume ngamagunya amathathu-sine karhulumente (kungekuba kukwiindlu zowiso-mthetho okanye iindibano zesizwe). Le nkqubo ingqongqo iqinisekisa ukuba iinguqu ezixhaswe ngokubanzileyo ziba yinxalenye yomGaqo-siseko. Iintluvotekozo zokuqala ezilishumi (iBhili yamaLungelo) zavunywa ngowe-1791; eyona nkqubo yakutshanje, ulwando olungamashumi amabini anesibini (ukwandiswa komrhumo-mkelo). Yaqinisekiswa ngo-192.

Ukucaciswa kwesigwebo kunye noqhaqho

Inkundla ephakamileyo yenza uhlolo-mcimbi womthetho, amandla okuvakalisa imithetho engekho mgaqweni, eqale yamiselwa ku Marbury v. Madison [183]. Ngolu hlolo lwetyala ngocalulo, iNkundla ichaza ulwimi olubanzi loMgaqo-siseko ngokukhanya amaxabiso neemeko zale mihla. Umzekelo, uMphengululo weSine ekuhlomelo ongekho ngqiqwenileyo wachazwa ukuba usebenzise iGPPPS ([FLT:]]][FLT]]] iUnited States v. Jones, 2012) kunye neseli-endawo ekhoyo yezonyango, inokuthi ichaze intelekelelo-data ([FLDiiiPPent.[FD] .[FT]

Isenzo seBhunga neSigqeba

Ngaphezu kokulungisa kunye neenkundla, iBhunga kunye nesebe eliphetheyo ziyakwazi ukukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye. IBhunga lingayiphumeza imimiselo eyandisa ukhuseleko, enjengeMithetho Yamalungelo Abantu ka-1964, iSivumelwano samaLungelo sonyaka ka-1965, kunye namaMerika anikwe uMthetho weNtubeko ekhubazeko ka-1990. Isebe elilawulayo linyanzelisa le mithetho kwaye linokukhupha imiyalelo yezolawulo enxulumene nenkululeko yoluntu. Ngokwalo rhulumente, ngomgaqo nemithetho yabo, ngokufuthi linikela ukhuseleko olongezelelekileyo ngaphaya komthetho karhulumente.

Izicelo Ezisebenzisekayo Zabafundi Nabafundisi - ntsapho

Ukuqonda inkululeko yesiseko somgaqo-siseko akuyomfundo nje kuphela. Kubafundi, la malungelo amisela amagosa esikolo amandla okukhangela abatshixi, amaphephandaba ajongelwa phantsi abafundi, okanye ukohlwaya intetho. Umzekelo wesibonelelo . Umgangatho weSikolo seSikolo soMbutho woluntu [[[[FLT:]] umisela ukuba abafundi “abawasebenzisi amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko ekufuneni inkululeko yokuthetha okanye yokuthetha kwisango lendlu yesikolo. Kodwa ke, izikolo zinokuvala intetho ebangela ukuqhutyekwa kwezinto. Abafundisi bakwakunandipha ukhuseleko lwemfundo, kuquka inkululeko yemfundo, nangona iimbopheleleko zobugcisa zifaka imidangathotho enzulu. Ukuhle kokusebenzisa inkululeko yemfundo, [FLD [FF] [FFF]

Isiphelo: Ukubaluleka Okuqhubekayo KomGaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko uhlala usisisixhobo esiphilayo, ulondoloza inkululeko yobuqu ngokungakhathali nxamnye nokutshintshatshintsha kwemithetho yezopolitiko. Ukwahlukana kwawo ngobunono namagunya, uludwe lwamalungelo, kunye nobuchule bokutshintsha buye bavumela iUnited States ukuba ikwazi ukuguqula izinto ngoxa ikhusela amaxabiso angundoqo enkululeko nokusesikweni. Kubafundisi- ntsapho nabafundi, abandakanyeke nomGaqo-siseko yimbopheleleko yoluntu. Ngokuqonda iBhili yamaLungelo, imigaqo yezomthetho ebhaliweyo, kunye neenkqubo zokuziqhela, abemi bayakwazi ukuxabisa nokukhusela inkululeko yabo. Njengoko uhlanga lujamelene neengxaki ezintsha zenkululeko, ubugrogrisi, ubugrogrisi obukhoyo emhlabeni wonke, kunye nemithetho yomgaqo-siseko wentlalo iya kuqhubeka ivavanywa kwaye iqinisekisiwe. Abagcini benkululeko exhonywa yinkululeko exhonywayo.