UmGaqo-siseko njengoMthetho Ophakamileyo Welizwe

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States asingoxwebhu nje olungokwembali; luyinkqubo ephilayo apho zonke izigqibo zorhulumente, zesizwe, kunye nezorhulumente wasekuhlaleni zakhiwa khona. Imisela isakhiwo sikarhulumente, ichaza amagunya esebe ngalinye, iphinde ichaze amalungelo abantu. Umthetho ngamnye olawulayo, inyathelo lowiso-mthetho, kunye nomthetho wokugweba kufuneka uthabathe igunya lawo kwaye uhlale uvisisana nomgaqo-siseko. Lo mgaqo-siseko uqinisekisa ukuba akukho mphathi-mthetho okanye isikombutho esisebenza ngaphandle kwemida emiselwe lizwe. Xa amaqumrhu amisela imimiselo, xa iingxoxo zeBhunga, okanye xa umongameli emisela izigwebo ezichitha izigwebo, iingxusho, iingxubu zomthetho azinakuze zivumelane nesigqibo somgaqo-mthetho-siseko.

Ukuqonda indlela urhulumente asebenzisa ngayo umGaqo-siseko ukwenza izigqibo kubalulekile kubemi abafuna ukuba abameli babo baphendule. UmGaqo-siseko asiyomithetho edityanisiweyo; utolikwa, usetyenziswa, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha ukulungiswa ukuphendula iimeko ezintsha. Lo mandla okuziqhelanisa angamandla awo kwaye ngumthombo wengxoxo eqhubekayo malunga nomgangatho ofanelekileyo wamandla karhulumente.

Indima YomGaqo-siseko Ekubhalweni Komthetho

Abaqulunqi baxhomekeke kumGaqo-siseko ukuqinisekisa ukuba yonke imithetho emitsha ihambelana nemigaqo yomgaqo-siseko. Xa ilungu leBhunga licebisa umthetho, iNdlu okanye iNdlu yeNdlu yezomthetho ihlola umbhalo ngokuchasene nomGaqo-siseko ukuqinisekisa ukuba umlinganiselo ungaphantsi kwamagunya adweliweyo eBhunga phantsi kweQhinga I. Umzekelo, iCormenty Claus (ISicathulo, iCandelo 8, iCandelo lesi-Clause 3) ibisisiseko semimandla emikhulu yomthetho karhulumente, ukusuka kwimithetho yamalungelo amakhaya ukuya kwimilinganiselo yemeko-bume. Kwangaxesha linye, ukuLandlwa kweshumi lokuLand ’ izigwebo kusebenza njengesikhumbuzi esingeniswangagunya likarhulumente elinikwe amagunya karhulumente okanye abantu, libeka i-chewase-ograccom (ICece i-consot) kwimist protomstion.

Abenzi bomthetho bawaqwalasela namalungelo omgaqo-siseko xa kumiswa umthetho. Umthetho olinganisela inkululeko yokuthetha, obeka isohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga, okanye ojolise kwiqela elithile lonqulo ubuyakoyiswa okanye bupheliswe ziinkundla. IBhili yamaLungelo, ingakumbi eyokuqala, eyesine, neyesibhozo, ilolonga ngokuthe ngqo imigaqo evunyelweyo yomthetho. Ngaphezu koko, ukwahlulwa kwamandla kufune ukuba nawuphi na umGaqo-siseko uvele kwiNdlukwano yeNdluvo yabameli, kwaye ukuba ityala lidlulisele amagumbi amabini ngendlela efanayo ngaphambi kokuba lidluliselwe kumongameli. Ezi zithintelo zimiselwe: ziyacotha inkqubo yomthetho kwaye ziyanyanzela, ziqinisekisa ukuba imithetho ibonise ukuvumelana kwemithetho ebanzi kuneenjongo yexeshana.

Ngaphaya komgangatho wesizwe, izikhululo zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente zisebenza ngaphakathi kwemida yomgaqo-siseko. Umgaqo-siseko karhulumente kufuneka uvumelane nomGaqo-siseko wase-U. Imithetho karhulumente engqubana nokhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko wesizwe.

Imfundiso Enamandla

Ummiselo ongundoqo womgaqo-siseko ekubekweni komthetho yimfundiso yamagunya adwelisiweyo. Urhulumente worhulumente angasebenzisa kuphela amandla awo agunyazisiweyo nguMgaqo-siseko (okanye lawo “ayimfuneko nafanelekileyo” ukuwenza). Lo mgaqo waqinisekiswa kwasekuqaleni uMcloch v. Mary [1819], apho iNkundla Ephakamileyo ibambelele ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ivumela iClausle ikhethe naziphi na iindlela , //ayichazichazileyo). Lo mgaqo waqinisekiswa ukuba ukuphumeza amandla ayo, ixesha elide xa iindlela zingavalwanga kwaye zingahambelani nencwadi yomthetho. Esi sigqibo simiselwe ngokubanzi ukwenzela iBhunga lomthetho, kodwa isiseko somthetho umele ube nesiseko somthetho we-gropulkn, i-odolay, i-od projectivesss processs, isebenza rhoqo kwimithetho yente okanye i-ogroway.

Ukucaciswa Kwezigwebo: IiNkundla njengeziGawulayo zoMgaqo-siseko

Ijudiary idlala indima ephambili ekuchazeni intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko kwiimeko ezithile. Ngamandla okuhlola isigwebo (‘iMarbury' v. Madison [1803])] iinkundla zephondo zingavakalisa imithetho, izenzo zolawulo, kunye nemigaqo yolawulo engenanto ukuba iyawuchaphaza umGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya lingumthombo wamandla karhulumente okuzilungisa xa ingaphaya kwemiqathango yesiseko. Xa i-Platoff ivavanya isenzo sikarhulumente njengesobugqeba, inkundla iya kuqwalasela umbhalo onxulumene nomgaqo-siseko, iinjongo zembali, uqheliselo lwembali, kunye nemigalelo yangaphambili.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., njengomqululisi wokugqibela wemibuzo yomgaqo-siseko, umisela iinkcazelo ezisisigxina ezimele zilandelwe ziinkomfa zonke nezinye iinkundla kunye nabadlali bakarhulumente. Umzekelo, Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ (1954), iNkundla yachaza ukuKhuselwa koMmiselo olinganayo weSibonelelo seGqiniseko lwe 145 ukuze ithintele u-Dintestemstyration kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, ibhukuqaqamkisa “e imfundiso elinganayo. Le sigqibo sinyanze urhulumente anyanzeleke ukuba ashe imigaqo ye-div e-parnoloji kwaye afune ukuba amasebe anyanze i-accomps asebenze ngokunjalo, ngokwendlela efanayo, kwiinkqubo zomtshato ezilungele ukuqhuba intlawulo zomtshato, kunye neenkqubo zomthetho zomtshato, kunye neenkqubo zoncedo zomthetho zomthetho zomthetho ezifanelekileyo. [Foct:2]berg.[Foct.[

Ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko asikokungalandeli i-Century. Abagwebi nabagwebi bamkela iintanda-bulumko ezahlukeneyo `imfundiso zobuGaqo-siseko, ukusetyenziswa komgaqo-siseko, ukusetyenziswa komgaqo-siseko , ukubumba indlela olulusebenzisa ngayo uxwebhu kwiimeko ezintsha. Le mpembelelo yentanda-bulumko ichaphazela iziphumo zokusuka kwimibandela esukela ekuqhosheni (ilungelo lokuzifunela ubuqu phantsi kwe-The I-ST Proced Claus) ukugaday (indawo yokuLandela iSinyuselo seThulo soMganiso kumaxesha amanani). Kungakhathaliseki oko ukusetyenziswa kwendlela, iinkundla zisebenza njengendlela yokuhlola imigaqo-wistomscracties nezenzo zempat tracesmential enokuthi ingquzukise amalungelo angundoqo okanye angaphezulu kwegunya elingundoqo.

Imfundiso Yokwahlula Iimfanelo NeBhili Yamalungelo

IBill of Rights ekuqaleni yasebenza kurhulumente karhulumente karhulumente. Noko ke, emva kwemfazwe yangaphakathi, iSindululo soMphengululo seshumi elinesine se-Access Claus saba yinqwelo-mafutha “yokuncedisa” inkoliso yezikhuseli nxamnye norhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni. Ngothotho lweesigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, inkululeko efana nokuthetha, ukushicilela, indibano, nelungelo lokucebisana kwakwenziwa ukuba kusebenze kumazwe. Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo esiseko somgaqo-siseko ahambelana ngaphaya kwelizwe kwaye onke amanqanaba karhulumente ahlonela inkululeko efanayo. Xa imigaqo-mthetho yezolwaphulo-mthetho okanye imigaqo-mthetho yemfundo, kufuneka aphendule lamalungelo aqululwe, akhuthazwe kwinkundla karhulumente.

Izigqibo ezilawulayo nomGaqo-siseko

Isebe elilawulayo, elikhokelwa nguMongameli, lifumana igunya lalo kwiGatya II loMgaqo-siseko. Amandla kamongameli aquka ukukhonza njengoMlawuli kwiNtloko yemikhosi exhobileyo, ukuxolela, ukuququzelela izivumelwano (iNdlu yeNdlu yeQela), ukumisela iijaji zikarhulumente, nokuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho iphunyezwe ngokuthembeka. Noko ke, la magunya asebenza ngokungenamda. UMgaqo-siseko unyanzelisa inyathelo lolawulo lwegunya eliphezulu, njengemfuneko yokuba izivumelwano zifumane imvume yeQela lesithathu kunye nokumiswa komongameli kumiselwe yiBhunga lombuso. Amandla okuvakalisa imfazwe ngeBhungane, hayi umongameli, nangona umongameli besoloko esebenzisa umkhosi ngaphandle kokubhengeza ngokusemthethweni phantsi kwegunya elingumthetho okanye isindululo solawulo lomthetho kwisivumelwano solawulo.

Imiyalelo yesigqeba sisixhobo esinamandla sokulungisa inkqubo ngaphandle komthetho omtsha, kodwa kufuneka ibe nesiseko somgaqo-siseko okanye somthetho. Umzekelo, ukuthathwa kwemijukujelwa yentsimbi kukaMongameli Truman ngo1959 ukuze athintele ukubetha ngexesha lemfazwe yaseKorea kwabethwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo ] isibini esiselula Phelele i-Tube Co. v. Sayerner ngenxa yokuba isenzo sasingenamgaqo-siseko okanye ugunyaziso lwemithetho. Isigqibo seNkundla saqinisekisa umgaqo wokuba umongameli akanakuwenza umthetho ngokungenatyala. Kutsha, imiyalelo ephambili yokufuduka, ummiselo, kwaye i-eyeye yavunywa kwinkundla yenkundla, ekukhuthuleni amandla ohlukeneyo okanye ekuchaseni kwemithetho yabantu ngabanye.

Kwakhona oomongameli basebenzisa inkqubo yamanye amazwe kunye namaziko okhuseleko avavanya imida yeBhunga leMigaqo-siseko. Iingxoxo zeWar Powers Comments, iinkqubo zokuhlola phantsi koMthetho woBuntlola bamazwe Ngamazwe (FISA), nokusetyenziswa komkhosi ngaphandle kwemvume yowiso-mthetho konke kuphakamisa imibuzo engokomGaqo-siseko. Isebe elilawulayo lisoloko libuza kwiSebe leSebe leSebe leMimiselo yezeMigaqo-siseko ukuqinisekisa izenzo ezivumelana nemiqathango yeBhosho-siseko ngaphambi kokuba ithathiwe. Le nkqubo yokuhlola yangaphakathi esemthethweni ingundoqo wokugcina izigqibo zolawulo lwesebe kumaziko agcina imigaqo-siseko.

Iingqinipho - bume Nokulungelelana Okuqheliselwayo

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela yoMgaqo-siseko asiyonto ethelekelelwayo; ngumatshini ophilayo obumba phantse onke amasebe amakhulu esigqibo sikarhulumente. Ingqungquthela ihlola umongameli ngokulawula uqingqo-mali, izivumelwano zokuqinisekisa amadinga, kunye ne-ne-in yamatyala anzima kakhulu-ne-afundisa nokususa umongameli. Umongameli uhlola iKhomishini ngokusebenzisa amandla eveto phezu komthetho. I-judicariary ihlola omabini amasebe ngokuvavanya ubugqeba bemithetho nezenzo zegunya. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linye elinolawulo kwaye izigqibo zifuna intsebenziswano okanye iinkqubo ezingekho mthethweni.

Umzekelo oqhelekileyo yinkqubo yeveto: umongameli angakwala ukusayina isigqeba, kodwa iKhomishini ingayiphazamisa i-veto ngevoti ezimbini ezizii-3 emagumbini omabini. Le mikhosi ithethana kwaye ilalanise. Omnye umzekelo kukuqinisekiswa komthetho weNkundla ePhakamileyo, apho icebiso leNtlalo kunye namandla avunyiweyo zivumela ukuba zithintele abacuphi abathathwa njengabangaphandle kwe-jaji. Isisongelo sohlolo socalulo nabenzi bomthetho; basoloko bebuza imibuzo yemithetho-siseko xa kuthethwa kwaye benyuselwa izibheno ukuze baphephe ukubethwa. Ezi ntshukumo zemihla ngemihla phakathi kwamasebe, ezikhokelwa ngumbhalo nesithethe, zigcina urhulumente elungelelaniswe ngolungelelwano.

Le nkqubo ifikelela ekugqityweni kwempi-mfazwe. Xa iKhomishini yesebe eliphetheyo okanye ubungqina, kusoloko kuvela iimbambano nxamnye nelungelo eliphezulu kunye negunya. Ezi ngxaki zomGaqo-siseko zisoloko ziconjululwa ngengxoxo, kodwa ngamanye amaxesha zikhokelela kwilixa lokudityaniswa (umz., United States v. Nixon, 1974]). Indima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiimfazwe ezinjalo iqinisa isikhundla sejajiko-jaji njengeyona idiyo yonke impikiswano yomgaqo-siseko.

Inkqubo Yohlaziyo: Indlela UmGaqo-siseko Ohlulwa Ngayo

Urhulumente ukwasebenzisa umGaqo-siseko kwinkqubo yakhe yokulungisa, evumela utshintsho olusesikweni kuxwebhu ngokwalo. Inqaku V linikela iindlela ezimbini zokulungisa: ngevoti ezimbini-ntathu kuzo zombini izindlu zeBhunga okanye ngendibano engokomGaqo-siseko ebizwa ngamacandelo amabini anesithathu endlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente. Ukukhuthuzwa kufuna iinguqu ezintathu ezinesine zezindlu zowiso-mthetho okanye iindibano. Esi sigqeba siphezulu siqinisekisa ukuba iinguqu kwisakhiwo somthetho-siseko zibonakalisa ububanzi, zihlala ngokuvumelana.

Izindululo ezingama-77 zibonisa indlela umGaqo-siseko oye walungiselwa ngayo ukusabela kukungabikho kokusesikweni ngokwembali, kwienguqu zezobugcisa, kunye nemilinganiselo yentlalo eguquguqukayo. UMthetho-nkqubo we-13th Wenza iintlawulo waphelisa ubukhoboka; uMphengululo weshumi elinesithoba wandisa amalungelo okuvota kumabhinqa; uHlaliso lweSigqibo seSiThathu soHlaziselo lweSiphengululo seSiphekephekethi se-Amakumi amabini anesithandathu sanciphisa iminyaka yokuvota ukuya kwi-18. Ukulungisa okufunekayo kokulungisa iminyaka efunekayo yokuphelisa ukhuthuko-luvo, ingxoxo yongqungqungquthela, kunye nokwenza ulwaniso lomthetho-siseko. Inkqulukelo lwezoshishino, ii-mali kunye namalungelo alinganayo amabhinqa aqhubeka kwizixhobo ezifunekayo kwiBhunga-okhesa.

Kubalulekile ukuba, inkqubo yokulungisa ityala ivavanywe ngokuchasene nokuphandwa kwejaji. Ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo itolika umGaqo-siseko ngendlela iBhunga kunye namazwana angavumelaniyo nayo, bangasebenzisa inkqubo yokulungisa ngokujika---jika okuko kutoliko. Oku kwenzeke kanye (Umphetho weshumi elinesibhozo ongaphezulu kwegunya ]Chisholm v. Georgia[]), kodwa oku kunokwenzeka kuhlala kuyisivikelo somgaqo-siseko.

Umanyano Nendima YamaMerika

UMgaqo-siseko uyahlula-hlula amandla phakathi korhulumente worhulumente kunye namazwe, ngegunya ngalinye elilawulayo. Eli gunya lolawulo lwahlukeneyo, elibizwa ngokuba yi-constancil, lifuna omabini amanqanaba karhulumente ukwenza izigqibo ezingaphakathi kweminye imiba yawo. UMthetho wokuHlaziya weshumi oLawulayo uqinisekisa ukuba xa umthetho karhulumente ungekho kwigunya unikwe urhulumente. Ngenxa yoko, amazwe enza eyawo imithetho kwimicimbi enjengemfundo, impahla, izivumelwano, umthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nempilo. Noko ke, iSuprety Claus Claus uqinisekisa ukuba xa umthetho karhulumente uchasene nomthetho osemthethweni osemthethweni, umthetho worhulumente urhulumente uyaphumelela.

Umanyano lwezolawulo luphembelela ukwenza isigqibo kwimimandla enjengemithetho yokusingqongileyo, yezonyango, kunye nokugcinwa kwabantu bemitshato. Umzekelo, amatyala angabhalisa ngokusemthethweni i-cannabis ukwenzela ukusetyenziswa kwezonyango okanye ezokuzonwabisa kwimida yawo, kodwa umthetho wesizwe uyaqhubeka ucalula i-cannabis njengeSedyuli Ndilawula. Oku kubangela impikiswano eqhubekayo engokomgaqo-siseko eqhubekayo ngobungakanani borhwebo nomgangatho wokukhulula. Ngokufanayo, imigaqo yengcwele emisela intsebenziswano namagunya orhulumente orhulumente wokufuduka iphakamisa imibuzo echasene nomyalelo-mthetho-neno-ne-ne-neprojective syn. Inkundla ephakamileyo yezomthetho i-mthetho i-[FLT] i-Prontoz.[FLT]

Abalawuli kunye nabalawuli bemithetho yorhulumente basoloko bevavanya le miqathango yomgaqo-siseko xa besenza inkqubo. Kufuneka baqinisekise ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente aziphuli Mthetho kaClaus, iClaus eKhuselweyo, okanye eminye imiqathango engekho mthethweni. Ngalo ndlela umGaqo-siseko unika zombini umgangatho (amalungelo omntu ngamnye) kunye nophahla (ubukhulu bomthetho) apho kusebenza khona ukwenza izigqibo.

Ukukhusela Amalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa: Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Nje Ngaphaya Kwawo

Umgaqo-siseko ulawula umgaqo-siseko ukhuseleko lwenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. IBhili yamaLungelo imisela inkululeko esisiseko urhulumente angenakuyivala. Xa urhulumente enza izigqibo ngokusemthethweni, ngolawulo, okanye ngokumisela ulawulo, i-[i"i"imele ikuhlonele ukukhusela koMmiselo Wokuqala Wezindululo, unqulo, ukushicilela, indibano, nesibongozo; ilungelo leSibini loMmiselo-Mpanzi wokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo; umgaqo wesiNgqongqongo weSine wokuphengulula ngokuphanda nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqwele; ukuqinisekisa kwenkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nokuvavanywa ngokusesikweni; kunye nokuvalwa kweSinxeba kwesi-8 kwemiqatha soMbeko, ingcwangu, kunye neso esineyo nesohlwayo engaqhelekanga.

La malungelo akaphelelanga; urhulumente angawalawula ukuba angabonakalisa umdla onyanzelisayo nokuba lo mthetho ulungiselelwe ngokufutshane (uhlolisiso lwecandelo kwiimeko ezininzi). Umzekelo, imiqathango kwintetho yezobupolitika, igalelo, kunye nemisebenzi yonqulo yonke icaciswe ukucacisa imida yomgaqo-siseko. Urhulumente usebenzisa umGaqo-siseko njengokhokelo lokwenza izigqibo ngokuqinisekisa ukuba nakuphi na ukuchaswa kwamalungelo kugwetyelwa nomdla obalulekileyo karhulumente kwaye kusetyenziswa ngendlela engqongqo.

ISibonelelo seMigaqo-nkqubo se-14 e-Aumenteal Protection Claus eSikhuthazo sika-Claus sibaluleke ngokukhethekile ekulungiseni izigqibo zikarhulumente ngokuhlelwa kocalucalulo. Uhlanga, isini, imvelaphi yesizwe, nezinye izimvo ezirhanelwayo zibangela ukuba kuqaliswe ukuvavanywa kwezasemthethweni. Abaqeshi boluntu, iiyunivesithi, kunye namaqumrhu afumana imigaqo-mthetho kufuneka bayile iinkqubo ezihlala zikholele, iimaphu zesithili, neengenelo zabasebenzi. Ngaphezu koko, i-SCrective Proces Claus ekhusela amalungelo asezantsi afana nomtshato, ukuqeqesha abantwana, kunye nokuzilawula, ezithi inkundla zizichaze ngokuthi “iindlela zokuzingolonga-mthetho.

Umthetho wangoku womgaqo-siseko uyaqhubeka ukwandisa ukusetyenziswa kwezi zikhuseli kumbandela omtsha, njengobuni, ubudoda, kunye nobuchule obungeyonkqubo. Njengoko ubugcisa butshintsha, urhulumente kufuneka achaze aze asebenzise imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko kwiimeko ezintsha. Oku kufuna uhlalutyo lolwezi ntsingiselo yantlandlolo, imizekelo, kunye neemeko zentlalo.

UmGaqo-siseko Ophilayo Neengxoxo Ezitolika

Ngoxa umbhalo womGaqo-siseko usisigxina, ukusebenza kwawo kuguquka ngokucaciswa kwezahlulelo. Izikolo ezibini eziziingcaciso ezibanzi zilawula intetho yomgaqo-siseko waseMelika: inkcazo yoqobo nomGaqo-siseko ophilayo. I-Credist iphikisa ngelithi ulwimi lomgaqo-siseko lufanele luchazwe ngokwentsingiselo yalo yoluntu ngexesha lokwenziwa kwamaqela. Abaphili-mGaqo-siseko baphikisa ngelithi amagama abanzi oxwebhu (afana “nenkqubo engaphambili,” "ukhuseleko olulinganayo,” kunye“ nokhuseleko olungaqhelekanga”" kufuneka achazwe ngokucacileyo ukuze abonise amaxabiso neemeko zanamhlanje.

Le mahluko wentanda-bulumko ukhokelela kwiziphumo ezichaseneyo kwiimeko ezibandakanya umtshato ongokwabelana ngesondo, ukuqhomfa, amalungelo emipu, kunye namandla olawulo. Urhulumente, xa ezonke, akayamkeli indlela enye yokucacisa; isebe ngalinye lizisa imbono yalo. Oomongameli bangasebenzisa iingxelo zokutyikitya iingxelo zabo ukuchaza indlela abawuchaza ngayo umthetho; iBhunga lingadlulisela imimiselo ngokuphandle okunokufunyanisiweyo ukuxhasa ukuma komgaqo-siseko; iinkundla zivakalisa iingcingano zazo ngeembono. Oku kusetyenziswa kwamazwi okuninzi kukhulisa isigqibo somgaqo-siseko kodwa kukwabangela iimpikiswano kunye nokungaqiniseki.

Ekugqibeleni, ukusebenzisa kukarhulumente umGaqo-siseko yinkqubo esebenzayo, eqhubekayo. Oku kubandakanya kungekuphela nje iinkundla kodwa kwanabenzi-mthetho, abalawuli, abameli, nabantu ngokwabo.