Umgaqo wengozi ephindwe kabini ngomnye wezona zinto zidala nezihlonelwa kakhulu kumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wase-Anglo - America. Osekelwe kuMgaqo-nkqubo wesihlanu ohlaziyiweyo kuMgaqo-siseko wase-U., unika ukuba akukho mntu “oya kubekwa phantsi kwetyala elifanayo ukuze abekwe kwingozi ephindiweyo yobomi okanye umlenze.” Emoweni wakhe umthetho uthintela urhulumente ekusebenziseni amandla akhe amakhulu omtshutshisi ukuze alawule umntu ophindaphindiweyo ukuvavanywa ukucinezelwa kwemvavanyo oluthiweyo lokungaphatheki kakuhle (*a indleko, iindleko, iindleko, kunye nokungaphindwa kwemvakalelo okungapheliyo. Kodwa ukuthomalala kwe-am, xa kusenziwa i-electivesss, kunye nemigibe esetyenziswayo, ingakumbi xa ithenjiwe ngokusemthethweni, kwaye i-umthetho womthetho osemthethweni, xa i-monwa, i-okalisiwe, kwaye i-----e.

Imvelaphi Yembali Yokufa Okubini

Ukwalelwa kokungangeni yingozi ephindwe kabini komnombo wayo ukuya kumthetho wamaRoma kwaye kamva kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi we ukhutshelo-mthetho kunye ne- umlawuli wobugqwerha [] uvuyise ukuba ummangalelwa sele ekhululwe okanye wagwetywa icala elinye icala. UMary Benton. v [FLT5], U.S.[784], umgaqo wesazisongezo tyala unyuse ityala ngokuphindwe kabini kwingxelo engaphaya kwe 145 Clascsting Ceast ([FLD]4]]). [ivose , i-UFLT] u-U.S.NS.S4, umgaqo wesazisomthetho-mthetho opheleleyo wezomthetho-mthetho oqhelekileyo, xa kuthelelwa u-“imodudiyokunyukunyuke, u-“

Xa Ingozi Incamathisela

Phambi kokuhlalutya iimeko eziphosakeleyo, kubalulekile ukuqonda xa ingozi idityaniswa kwisaphuli-mthetho esiqhubeka. Kwityala labachopheli-tyala, ingozi idityaniswa xa ijaji ifungile kwaye ibekwa kwindawo yokuhlala. Kwityala lebhentshi, iyaqubisana xa ingqina lokuqala lifunyaniswe. Ukuba ingtshutshiso okanye isiqinisekiso sipheliswa ngaphambi kwaloo mzuzu, umzekelo, ngokuhamba phambili kwetyala ukukhupha ummangalelwa ngaphandle kwengozi ephindwe kabini. Ngokuphikisana noko, nakuphi na ukukhulula abachobi ngaphandle kwesigqibo sokugqibela kuphakamisa imibuzo enzulu.

Ulwaphulo - mthetho: Umgama Omanqamlezileyo

Ityala liphosakele ukupheliswa kwetyala phambi kokuba kufikelelwe isigqibo, ngokuqhelekileyo ngenxa yempazamo yesithethe, ukuziphatha okubi, ukufa kwejaji, okanye ijaji eqeshiweyo. Umbuzo ongundoqo kuyo yonke imbali ephosakeleyo kukuba urhulumente ungayizama na ityala lommangalelwa. Impendulo ixhomekeke ekubeni ngubani oye waqalisa ukuqhutyelwa kwetyala eliphosakeleyo nokuba ngaba lalifuneka kusini na.”

Iinkundla Eziphosakeleyo Zavakaliswa Ngemvume Yalo Mthetheleli

Ukuba ummangalelwa uyavuma ukuba ityala lithathelwe indawo ngokuphosakeleyo, okanye, ngokuqheleke kakhulu, igqwetha lisenokuyishukumela into engalunganga. Ngokuvuma, ummangalelwa uthathwa njengowawurhoxisile umGaqo-siseko. Umzekelo, ukuba igqwetha elithethelelayo lifumanise ukuba ingqina lokumangalela alikho ngqinelani na, igqwetha lisenokusuka lithathe inyathelo eliphosakeleyo. Ukuba livumelekile, urhulumente angalilungisa kwakhona icala. Noko ke, ezinye inkundla ziyacingisisa enoba imvume leyo yayiyinyani ngokwenene ngokuzithandela na kwaye aziqondi ukuba ummangalelwa akavumanga ngokobuqu okanye ukuba ingxengxengelwa enyanzelwa ukuba ityala ityala liphoxelelwe ngokuphosakeleyo.

Iinkundla Eziphosakeleyo Zavakaliswa Yinkundla Ngenxa Yommeli Wale Mmangaleli

Olu ludidi oluthandabuzayo. Xa inkundla ivakalisa ukuqulunqa ityala eliphosakeleyo ngaphandle kwemvume yommangalelwa, ingozi ephindiweyo izakubamba kwakhona utshutshiso ngaphandle kokuba kukho “imfuneko” kwimiba ephosakeleyo. Igama elithi“imfuneko enkulu" lacaciswa okokuqala [ United States v. Perez, 22 U.S. 579 [1824], apho inkundla ePhakamileyo yayikholelwa ukuba inkundla ejingayo ngumzekelo ocacileyo wokubonakalisa imfuneko. Kwiminyaka, iNkuqululo iye yagxininisa ukuba amandla okuvakalisa uvavanyo oluphosakeleyo afanele asetyenziswe ngokugqithisileyo kwaye asetyenziswe kuphela kwiimeko ze-“ eziphezulu ze-ieR.[FLD [F:][2][5][3]

Hung Jury

Umzekelo obalulekileyo wokubonakalisa imfuneko liqumrhu labachopheli-tyala elinikela ingxelo yokuba alinakufikelela kwisigqibo esithe saxhonywa ngabachopheli-tyala. Kwimeko ezinjalo, ijaji yetyala ingavakalisa ukumangalelwa okuphosakeleyo kwityala lommangalelwa, kwaye urhulumente angamphikisa ummangalelwa. Isizathu sisokuba umdla kawonke-wonke wokuba ityala liphele. Qhagamshe ukuba kunokwenzeka ukuba ityala lifumaneke xa ubungqina bugunyazisa inzala yommangalelwa ekuphepheni ityala lesibini. Iinkundla zinika abagwebi ityala elibanzi kulo mmandla, nangona ijaji imele ingathathi ithathe nyathelo ngokukhawuleza okanye inyanze.

Ukumangalelwa Okuphosakeleyo

Umba onzima ngakumbi uvela xa umtshutshisi enyanzelisa ukuba ityala liphoswe. Ukuba umtshutshisi ngabom ubopha ummangalelwa ukuba ashukumise kwityala eliphosakeleyo (Ngomzekelo, ngokubuza ngokuphindaphindiweyo imibuzo engalunganga(-re-projectus) ungavalwa. Ityala elikhokelayo ngu- Ognon v. Kennedy, i-456 U.S. 667 (1982), apho iNkukomkhulu ingqina ukuba iingozi eziphindwe kabini ziphinde zabekwa kwakhona kuphela ukuba umtshutshisi uzenzekele icebo eliphosakeleyo. Ukungakhathali okanye kwanokuba nenkathalo enzulu akwanele. Oku kwenza kube nzima kubakhokele abaxhasi ukuphumelela kwimilo enjalo, kodwa xa imo edidelekileyo i-'eroctive.

Ezinye Iimeko

Kukwafuneka kuboniswe ukuba inkundla yamatyala ingakwazi ukwenza nto ithile xa ingquzulwano efihliweyo ngaphambili yenzala ivela, okanye xa isiganeko esingakhange sicetywe sikwenza kube nzima ukuqhubeka `njengentlekele yemvelo okanye isifo esinzulu seqela. Kwimeko nganye, inkundla yamatyala kufuneka iqwalasele ezinye iindlela ngezantsi , njengokusebenzisa enye igqiza, okanye ukubeka imiyalelo yokuqhubekeka kwetyala, okanye ukubeka imposiso. Ukungaphumeleli ukuqwalasela imilinganiselo enzima kunokukhokelela ekufumaneni into engabonakaliyo, ngaloo ndlela imo yokulungisa kwakhona.

Ezikhethekileyo Ukuthatha Ithayile Kabini Emva Kwesigwebo

Ngapha koko, iinkalo ezimiselwe kakuhle zivumela urhulumente ukuba aphephe ipali yengozi ephindwe kabini nasemva kokuvalwa okanye ukugwetywa.

Imfundiso Yabalawuli Abahlukeneyo

ISolawulo Ezohlukeneyo, eyaziwa njengemfundiso edityanisiweyo yesibini ye-"%ssionign, ivumela oorhulumente borhulumente kunye norhulumente ukuba bamangalele umntu omnye ngenxa yehambo efanayo ngenxa yokuba bazimele ngokwahlukeneyo. Umzekelo, ukuba umntu ukhululwe kwinkundla yetyala lokurhwebela iziyobisi, urhulumente wesizwe usengammangalela loo mntu ophantsi komthetho karhulumente ngenxa yezenzo ezifanayo eziphantsi. Oku kuchaseneyo kuqinisekiswe ngokuqinisekisiweyo yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiimeko ezifana . United States v.[13], S. Ct. (20.19), kwaye uhlala ephikisene impikiswano kodwa ngokunjalo, amaphondo amabini angammangalela ummangali ngamnye ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho olufanayo olunqamle.

Izibheno Zokutshutshiswa

Ngokuqhelekileyo, ityala alinakubhenela ekuthethelelweni kuba oko kubeka ummangalelwa engozini okwesibini. Noko ke, kukho umahluko omxinwa. Urhulumente angafaka isibheno esithile esiphelise ngokunempumelelo ityala eliphelayo `njengemimiselo efana ne-18.C. 7631. Kodwa ukuba ukugwetywa kusekelwe kwinyaniso okanye kwisigqibo esijoliswe kwityala elibucala, igalelo eliphindwe kabini likwalela nasiphi isibheno. Ukuba iziphumo zokugweba zivela kwimpazamo yeprocetura (umz., ijaji echazi yomthetho), iinketho zikarhulumente zilinganiselwe kakhulu, nangona kwimiqathango yesiphatho “so sokukhulula i-Exhuption” zinokunikwa imvume ukuba imvume inikwe.

Ukutshutshiswa Kwabemi Nezaphuli - mthetho

Ingozi ephindwe kabini isebenza kwizenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho, hayi ezoburhulumente. Urhulumente angazisa isenzo soburhulumente sokuphulukana nepropati esetyenziswa kulwaphulo-mthetho, kwanokuba umnini-mthetho wakhululwa kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho elingaphantsi. Noko ke, United States v. Ursery, 518 U.S. 267 [1996], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathiwe isithi ukulahlwa kwetyala kwabemi ngokuqhelekileyo akubangelwa “kuchatshazwa". Oku kuvumela izenzo ezinxulumeneyo zoluntu kunye nezolwaphulo-mthetho ngaphandle kokuxhokomfakela umGalo.

Uvavanyo Emva Kwezibheno Ezinempumelelo

Ukuba ummangalelwa ubanjwa kwaye ubhencwa, kwaye inkundla enika izicelo ibuyisela umva ukunyanzeliswa nokuqukunjelwa kwetyala elitsha, umngcipheko ophindwe kabini udla ngokungabikho kwi-bar. Isibheno sommangalelwa sithathwa njengesisombululo sokhuseleko. Noko ke, ukuba utshintsho lusekelwe kubungqina obunganelanga , "```Umngcipheko ophindwe kabini" kunye nommangalelwa akanakuphinda afakwe kwakhona ([[FLT: 0]] Burs v. United States], 437 U.S. 1.7) umahluko uyagxekwa: ubungqina obusekelwe kwi-umbango, lo nyaka bulingana notshintsho olusuka kwi-activemorbletion, lo gama imposiso ingekho mngeni.

Iimpawu Zophawu Ziyawuphazamisa Umthetho

Izigqibo eziliqela zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ziye zachaza indlela ezinokuhamba ngayo iingozi eziphindwe kabini kumongo wokophula:

  • United States v. Perez [1824]: waseka “imfuneko enkulu” imigangatho yokuchonga ngokuphosakeleyo impikiswano yommangalelwa.
  • Wade v. Umphengululi (1949): Uhlaziyo olubonakalayo lwenkcazo kwiinkundla zemikhosi ungqamaniso lwaye lwayidibanisa umdla woluntu ekugqibeni imicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho.
  • Arizona v. Washington (1978): Wayigqala njenge jaji egwebayo ngetyala eliphosakeleyo elisekelwe kwingxoxo engafanelekanga yomtshutshisi ifuna ukuthotyelwa kodwa kufuneka ixhaswe “yi-asethi enkulu."
  • gon v. Kennedy (1982): Ibeke isiqobo sokulungisa kwakhona ityala emva kokwenziwa kwetyala elibi libangelwa kukungalungisi kwetyala kwiimeko apho umtshutshisi wayezimisele ukuxhokonxa ityala.
  • Igagge v. United States (2029): Iqinisekisa imfundiso edityanisiweyo, ivumela amatyala alawulayo azimeleyo akwindlela efanayo.

Izicelo Ezisebenzisekayo Zoogqirha Abasemthethweni

Ukhuselo lwezixhobo ze-athorney

Xa ukuvavanywa kubonakala kungalunganga, isiluleko sokuzikhusela singacinga ukushukuma ukuze kuqwalaselwe ukhuseleko oluphosakeleyo. Noko ke, ukwenza oko kuphazamisa ingozi ephindwe kabini ngaphandle kokuba ukuziphatha okubi kwengxengxezo bekungavuselelanga inkanuko. Ngoko ke, icebiso kufuneka livavanye uncedo lokuphepha ukunya intembeko enokwenzeka echasene nomngcipheko wesibini, osenokuba ukulungele ukuqhutyelwa phambili. Ukuba ukuziphatha komtshutshisi kunqamleza umgca kungene ekuqhutyeni ngesiquphe, ukhuseleko lufanele lushekele ukuqhutyelwa ngaphandle kokuzilungisa kodwa lugcine nengxelo yokungalungisi kakuhle ukuze luchase phantsi kwe- u-Origon v. Kennedy.]

Abatshutshisi

Abatshutshisi kufuneka baqonde ukuba nayiphina ihambo enokubonwa njengebangela ukuphazanyiswa kwetyala ngokungeyomfuneko ingahlala ihleli. Kwanaxa uvavanyo lungafanelekanga kakuhle, umtshutshisi kufuneka aphephe ukuqhuba ingxengxezo yokuzikhusela ngaphandle kwecala. Ukuba ijaji exhotyisiweyo ixelelwe, urhulumente kufuneka acele ukuba ijaji ihlole zonke ezinye iindlela ngaphambi kokuba ichaze iprojekthi engalunganga; ukulahleka kwangaphambili kungafunyanwa kungabonisi mfuneko, nto leyo ikhokelela ekugxothweni ngekhethelo.

ABagwebi

Abagwebi abagwebayo bathwele uxanduva olunzima lokuqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla ezingalunganga zivakaliswa kuphela emva kokuqwalasela ngenyameko zonke ezinye iindlela. Kufuneka bachaze ngokucacileyo ukufumana okucacileyo kwemfuneko ecacileyo kwirekhodi, bachaze isizathu sokuba kungabi namilinganiselo mikhulu kakhulu `njengokululeka abachopheli-tyala, okanye ukuqhubekeka kwetyala kunganeno. Ukusilela ukwenza oko kungakhokelela ekuguqulweni kwetyala nokurhoxiswa okusisigxina kwezityholo.

Ingozi Ephindwe kabini Kwimeko Yangoku

Igalelo eliphindiweyo lengozi liyaqhubeka liphendula ngokuphendula kwimingeni emitsha engokwasemthethweni. Umzekelo, kuvele imibuzo ngokusetyenziswa kwalo kulwaphulo-mthetho lweziphene lwekhompyutha apho ihambo isenzeka khona kwiintambo zikarhulumente, ukumangalelwa ngokulandelelana phantsi kwemithetho karhulumente ehambayo, kunye nokudityaniswa kwemiqathango yokufuduka (ekungabemi kodwa inokuba neziphumo zolwaphulo-mthetho). Unyuko lwe- “zingamanani” — ulwaphulo-mthetho, ulwaphulo-mthetho, kunye nomthetho olawulayo — lukwavavanya umlinganiselo wokhuseleko. Ngoxa umgaqo uhlala uqinile, imida yawo ihlala iqinile.

Isiphelo

Umngcipheko ophindwe kabini ungumgaqo-qhinga obalulekileyo nxamnye nophando olubalulekileyo kumatyala karhulumente, kodwa ukuchasana nokungagqibeki komthetho kutyhila ulungelelwano olululo phakathi kwamalungelo omntu ngamnye nomdla woluntu kwityala elifanelekileyo nelipheleleyo. Ityala elingagqibekanga alikuphelisi ukukwazi kukarhulumente ukumangalela; nokuba ityala livumelekile na kusini na kuxhomekeke kumntu oye waquququzelela ukupha, isizathu sokuba ityala linikwe, kodwa ukuba liboniswe ukuba kukho. Iimeko ezikhoyo zibalulekile. [[FLT: 0] PFLT] ukugwetywa [[FLT:] kuxhomekeke kumthetho othe ngqo] kunika izicwangciso ezikhethekileyo, kodwa ityala ngalinye liguqula izibakalayelo ezisemthethweni, kubasebenzi abasebenzi bebubulungisa naxa belusebenzisa ulawulo oluphindileyo xa besebenzisa bonke oogcinezo bulungisa kunye nabagcine.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga i yeNkcubeko yoLwazi lwasemthethweni yeNtoliki yeNkcubeko yeNkcubeko yezolwazi ephindwe kabini, iSCOUSBOUSlog yohlalutyo lweemeko ezingundoqo[, kunye nombhalo we we-[FLT]] ODYM v. Kennedy[[FL:6]]