Isiseko senkqubo yeNkundla yaseMerika

Ijaji lisiseko solawulo lwedemokhrasi, ijongene nokutolika imithetho, ukucombulula iimbambano, nokuqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni kulawulwa ngokufanelekileyo. EUnited States, inkqubo yenkundla isekwa njengemigangatho emibini, iquka iinkundla zorhulumente nezorhulumente, nganye enemithetho eyahlukeneyo kunye neembopheleleko. Ukuqonda le nkqubo ijongene nenkxalabo nabani na ofunda umthetho, imbali, okanye ulawulo lukawonke wonke, njengoko ichaphazela ngokuthe ngqo indlela imithetho enyanzeliswa ngayo nendlela amalungelo obuqu akhuselwa ngayo.

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. umisela ijaji yesizwe phantsi kweGatya III, ngoxa iinkundla zikarhulumente zifumana igunya kumgaqo-siseko wesizwe nakwimimiselo. Esi sakhiwo sibini sithetha ukuba imicimbi emininzi engokwasemthethweni iphathwa kumgangatho karhulumente, kodwa amatyala abandakanya umthetho wesizwe, imibuzo yomgaqo-siseko, okanye iimpikiswano eziphakathi kwemiba iyehla phantsi kolawulo lorhulumente. Isiphumo siluthungelwano oluntsonkothileyo kodwa olulungelelanisiweyo lweenkundla ezilungelelanisa ubunye besizwe nobhetyebhetye-bhetye belizwe.

Ukuhambela Phambili Kweenkundla EUnited States

Inkqubo yenkundla ayizange ivele ngokupheleleyo; yavela kwizithethe zomthetho eziqhelekileyo namahlalo aseNgilani. Emva kokuzimela geqe, uMthetho weJadicary ka-1789 wadala inkundla yokuqala yenkundla yephondo, kuquka iNkundla ePhakamileyo, iinkundla zesithili, neenkundla zesiphaluka. Ukutyhubela iinkulungwane, inkqubo yanwenwa ngomthetho ophawula izinto ofana noMthetho we-Evarts ka-1991, owaseka isakhiwo sale mihla sorhulumente, kunye nokusekwa kweenkundla ezikhethekileyo zokusingatha ukuwa kwamaxabiso, irhafutheliswa kwerhafu, nemibango yezorhwebo yamazwe ngamazwe.

Iinkundla zelizwe, ngelo xesha, zaphuhlisa ngokweenkundla ezihambelana, ngokufuthi ezibonakalisa isimo sengqondo sengingqi neemfuno zomthetho. Umzekelo, amanye amaphondo aseka iinkundla ezahlukeneyo ngenxa yokulingana (ityala) ngelinye ixesha ezinye zidibanise neenkundla zomthetho. Namhlanje, lonke urhulumente unenkundla yalo ephakamileyo, iinkundla eziphakathi, kunye neenkundla zokuvavanya igunya jikelele, kunye neenkundla ezininzi ezigwebayo.

Iintlobo Zeenkundla: Ukutshatyalaliswa Okumanyeneyo

Iinkundla Zetyala: Umgaqo Ophambili Wokusesikweni

Iinkundla zetyala, ezikwabizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zetyala lokuqala, zilapho amatyala aqala khona. Ziva ubungqina, zihlolisisa amangqina, zize zifumane izibakala. Kwinkqubo karhulumente, ezi zibizwa ngokuba ziiNkundla zeSithili sase-United States, yaye kukho isithili ezingama-99 ezinjalo kulo lonke elo lizwe.

Iinkundla zetyala lephondo zihamba ngamagama ahlukahlukeneyo ``inkundla ephakamileyo, inkundla yesiphaluka, inkundla yesithili, okanye inkundla yengingqi'e) kodwa zonke zisebenza umsebenzi ofanayo. Zisingatha zombini imicimbi yasekuhlaleni (umz., ukumangalelwa ngokonzakalisa komntu, ukudibana kwezivumelwano, umthetho wentsapho) kunye namatyala olwaphulo-mthetho (ukusuka kwizenzo ezingalunganga ukuya kwityala elinzulu). Amanye amagunya amakhulu nawo anezahlulelo akhethekileyo kwi-probate, ulutsha, okanye amatyala obuhlobo basekhaya.

Iinkundla Zetyala Ezikhethekileyo

kwinqanaba lenkundla evavanyayo, imimandla emininzi iye yadala iinkundla ezikhethekileyo ukuze ziphucule impumelelo nobuchule:

  • IiNkundla zeBankrupt: Asingatha onke amatyala okubhaliswa phantsi komthetho karhulumente, kuquka Isahluko 7, 11, kunye ne 13 se-Iprojekthi ye-U.S. ijonge inkqubo ukuqinisekisa ukuthobela.
  • [[UMTL: 0] IiNkundla zeTax: lungisa impikiswano phakathi kwababuthi berhafu nenkonzo yeNgeniso yangaphakathi (IIRS) phambi kokuba ababuthi berhafu bahlawule umlinganiselo wempikiswano.
  • [[UMTL:0] Inkundla yeJuvenile: Ukujolisa kubantwana abatyholwa ngokungathobeli okanye abafuna ulawulo, ngogxininiso ekulungiseni izinto endaweni yesohlwayo.
  • [[Umthetho:0] IiNkundla zempilo yeNyanga: ukhupha abantu ngesifo sengqondo ukusuka kwinkqubo yezobulungisa zolwaphulo-mthetho ukuya kwiinkqubo zonyango.
  • [[UMTL:0] IiNkundla zeMipu: nikeza enye indlela engaphaya kwentambo kubenzi beziyobisi ezingenabundlobongela, idibanise ulawulo nonyango lokusebenzisa kakubi iziyobisi.

Iinkundla Eziphandayo: Ukuhlola Ingxelo

Iinkundla zezicelo aziqhubeli matsha amatyala; bahlola irekhodi esuka kwinkundla yamatyala ukuze bafumanise ukuba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zenzekile kusini na ezinokuthi zibe nempembelelo kwiziphumo. Kwinkqubo karhulumente, iinkundla eziphakathi ziinkundla zezibheno zase-U.S., zahlulwe zaba ziziphaluka zesithili ezili-13, i-D.C. isekethi, kunye ne-Federal Transferation). Iinkundla zephondo zahlukene ngokwesakhiwo; amanye amazwe anenkundla enye yezibheno, ngoxa amazwe amakhulu afana neKhalifoni neTexas anemida eninzi.

Izibheno azizenzeki ngokuzenzekelayo kwiimeko ezininzi. Iqela eliphulukana nesaziso sesibheno nokuphikisa okukhoyo komthetho (ii-prief) lichaza isizathu sokuba inkundla yetyala iphambuke. Ngokuqhelekileyo iqela lenkundla yetyala lijonga ii-appellate . Ngokuqhelekileyo iijaji ezintathu/ijonga iintetho ezifutshane, zinokuva impikiswano zomlomo, ze zinikezele uluvo olubhaliweyo. Iziphumo ezinokwenzeka ziquka:

  • [[UMTL:0] Isiqinisekiso: Ukuxhasa isigqibo senkundla egwetyiweyo.
  • ` buyisela umva: jika ngaphezulu isigqibo.
  • [[UMTL:0] ``I-Remand''' [ Thumela elityala emva kwinkundla evavanyiweyo ukwenzela ingcebiso ezithe rhoqo noluvo lweziphumo.
  • Ityala elikwinkundla evavanyiweyo.

Indlela Ezibhenela Ngayo

Asiyonto yonke imposiso ebhaliweyo evumela ukuguqulwa. Iinkundla zezicelo zisebenzisa imilinganiselo eyahlukileyo yohlolo. Umzekelo, imibuzo yomthetho ibuye incitshiswe de novo [ukutsha], ithetha inkundla yesalathisi enganikezeli umva kutoliko lomgwebi ovavanyiweyo. Ukufumana iziphumo zento kuphinda kulungiswe [[[FLT:]] imposiso ecacileyo [[FLT]], umgangatho ophezulu. Isigqibo, njengobungqina obuthile, siphindaphindwa ngetyala [[FLT:]]. Lo maleko ugcina uqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla ezifanelekileyo zomthetho ezifanelekileyo ngexesha lokuvavanywa.

Iinkundla Eziphakamileyo: Igunya Lokugqibela

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zikho kumanqanaba orhulumente kunye norhulumente. U.S. iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyinkundla ephakamileyo kwelo lizwe, equka abagwebi abasithoba abasebenza ekumiseni ubomi babo bonke. Inegunya lokuqala kwiseti yeemeko ezimxinwa (umz., iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe) kodwa iqhelisela ulawulo oluphezulu, ikhetha amatyala okuva kwityala elikwi-' ekwahluleleneyo . Inkundla inikela uhlolo kumalunga nama-80-100 emeko angaphezulu kwe7000 ezicelonke izibongozo zigqibo zimiselwe ngokwezigqibo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi kulo lonke ilizwe.

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe (maxa wambi ezibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zokhetho lokugqibela) zinegama lokugqibela kwimibandela yomthetho karhulumente nenkcazelo yomGaqo-siseko. Izigqibo zazo zigqibele ngaphandle kokuba zibandakanya umbuzo karhulumente onokuthi ubhenqiswe kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States. Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zeli lizwe ziquka abagwebi abahlanu ukuya kwabasithoba, abanyuliweyo okanye abatyunjwe ngokuxhomekeke kwindlela karhulumente.

Imisebenzi yeeNkundla: Ngaphezu Kwesigqibo Sempikiswano

Iinkundla zisebenzisa imisebenzi emininzi enxulumeneyo exhasa umthetho nolungelelwano lwentlalo.

  • Isigqibo seNkundla ePhawulayo: inika ikhusi elilungelelanisiweyo, elingakhethi khethe ekucombululeni iingxabano. Ngaphandle kweenkundla, amaqela azakubhenela kuncedo lwawo okanye kugonyamelo lwangasese, lucuthe uzinzo lwentlalo.
  • Ufako loMthetho: imigaqo isoloko ididana. Iinkundla zicacisa intsingiselo yazo ngokutolika, zisebenzisa uluhlu lolwakhiwo kunye nemizekelo. Lo msebenzi unika ubomi kwiindinyana ezingekho mthethweni.
  • Ukhuseleko lwamalungelo ngamanye:[ IiNkundla zeNkundla zeNtlanganiso zingabameli abaphambili bamalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Zihlola imithetho kunye nezenzo zikarhulumente zokuthobela iBhili yamaLungelo kunye nomgaqo-siseko. Iimeko zokuphawula ezifana Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954]) kunye [[FLT:]] no-Obergefell v. Hodges (20) ibonakalisa indima ye-judiary kwinkululeko yoluntu.
  • Isicwangciso sobugqibi (Iziphene ze-Statu):[[FTLT:1] izigqibo zenkundla eziphezulu ziba yimodeli enyanzelisayo ekufuneka ilandelwe ziinkundla ezisezantsi. Le mfundiso ye stare decis[ iqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki nokuxelwa kwangaphambili kumthetho. Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikhupha umthetho, ibumba iziphumo ezisemthethweni kamashumi eminyaka.
  • [[NKQUBO:0] Ukubekwa kweNkundla yeNkcubeko: ayisebenzisi nje umthetho; ichaza amaxabiso entlalo. Ngengqiqo, abagwebi banxibelelana ngesimilo esamkelekileyo nesingesiso, bephembelela iimbono zikawonke-wonke zokusesikweni.
  • [[FLT: 0] Abalawuli abaphetheyo: Iinkundla zihlola izenzo zamasebe olawulo ukuqinisekisa ukuba ahlala kwigunya lawo elisemthethweni kwaye alandela inkqubo efunekayo. Oku kwaziwa njengohlolo lolawulo lwezenzo zombutho, uhlolo olungundoqo kumandla olawulo.

Indima YaBagwebi Nemivumbo Ekugwetyweni

ABagwebi: Abagcini-sango kunye nabaenzi-Zigqibo

Abagwebi baphambili kumsebenzi wenkundla. Balawula inkundla, bayalela kwimibandela ebhaliweyo necacileyo, bayalela amajaji, yaye kwiinkundla zejaji (iityala ngaphandle kwenkundla egwebayo) banikela isigqibo. Abagwebi bamaPhondo batyunjwa nguMongameli kwaye baqinisekiswa yiBhunga, besebenza ukumiselwa kobomi bonke ukuqinisekisa uzimele. Abagwebi baseburhulumenteni bangamiselwa, banyulwe, okanye bakhethwe ngeenkqubo zokukhetha ezifanelekileyo.

Kwakhona abagwebi banendima ebalulekileyo ekugwebeni abamangalelwa. Kufuneka baqwalasele imigaqo yetyala, izibakala zetyala, imbali yommangalelwa, kunye neengxelo zexhoba. Kwezinye iindawo, abagwebi banengqiqo ephangaleleyo; kwezinye, izigwebo ezinyanzelekileyo zinyanzelisa ukhetho lwabo. Indima yomgwebi iquka ukuququzelela iinkundla zangaphambi kwetyala, ukungxengxelelwa iindlebe, kunye neengqungquthela zokuhlana.

Iimbopheleleko Eziyintloko ZaBagwebi

  • Ukukhokela iimvavanyo neendlebe
  • Ulawulo lwentshukumo (umz., intshukumo ukugxotha, iintshukumo ukwenzela umgwebo wesishwankathelo)
  • Ukulawula ikhalenda yenkundla nokuqukunjelwa kwamatyala
  • Ukuqinisekisa ukuba amagqwetha alandela imithetho yendlela yokuziphatha
  • Ukudlulisela imiyalelo esemthethweni kumaqumrhu eejaji
  • Ukubhala izimvo kwiimeko ezichaphazelekayo

Iintlanganiso: Ilizwi Loluntu

ISigaba seSithandathu soMphengululo siqinisekisa ukuba unelungelo lokuchotshelwa kwetyala kumatyala akwaphula umthetho apho isohlwayo singaphaya kweenyanga ezintandathu sibotshelelwe.

Iindidi ezimbini ezingundoqo zamaqumrhu agwebayo zikhona:

  • [[FLT: 0] I Juries Ezinkulu: Eqalwe ngabemi abali-16-23, bafumana ubungqina obunikelwa ngabatshutshisi ukufumanisa ukuba kukho isizathu esinokwenzeka sokutyhola umntu ngetyala elinzulu. Iijaji ezinkulu azisongi ukuba zibeke ityala kusini na; zigqiba ukuba zifanele zibekwe ityala kusini na. Izenzo zabo ziyimfihlo.
  • I Juries: Ngokwesiqhelo abemi, bafumana ubungqina ekuchongeni baze banikeze isigwebo. Kwimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, isigqibo kufuneka sihlangane (kwinkundla yequmrhu kunye phantse onke amazwe). Kwimeko zasekuhlaleni, ukungalingani akusoloko kufunwa; amanye amaphondo avumela i-etheromajori.

Juries igqiba imibuzo yenyaniso; abagwebi bagqiba imibandela yomthetho. Olu lwahlulo lomsebenzi lusisiseko kwinkqubo yabachopheli-tyala. Noko ke, iijaji azingomamkeli bobungqina obungaqeshwanga ```abasebenzi abakhutheleyo abasebenzisa umthetho njengoko uqeqesho lomgwebi lufundisa izibakala abazifumanayo. Ubulumko bokuvumela abemi ukuba bathathe inxaxheba ngqo kwintelekelelo baye banconywa njengokhuselo oluchasene norhulumente ochukumileyo kwaye njengendlela yokufundisa uluntu ngokubanzi ngobulungisa.

Iinkundla zamakhaya: Umahluko Obalulekileyo

Inkqubo engokwasemthethweni yahlulahlulwa yayahlulwa yayahlulwa yangamacandelo amabini: ulwaphulo-mthetho noluntu. Ngoxa isakhiwo esinye senkundla sisenokuhlala iindidi zombini zamatyala, iinkqubo, iinjongo, neziphumo zahluka ngokuphawulekayo.

Iinkundla Zezaphuli - mthetho

Iinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho zisingatha amatyala apho urhulumente (ukutshutshisa) etyhola umntu okanye iqumrhu ngokwaphula umthetho onokuthi uthwale isohlwayo esinjengesohlwayo sokuvalelwa entolongweni, ukuhlawuliswa, ukuvavanywa okanye ukufa. Umthwalo wobungqina ngulo ungaphaya kobuthandabuzeko obusengqiqweni[, owona mgangatho uphakamileyo kumthetho. Abathathi-nxaxheba abaquke umtshutshisi (abamela urhulumente), igqwetha lokuzikhusela, nommangalelwa.

Amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho aqhubekeka ngamaqondo: ukubanjwa, ukubonakala kokuqala, ukuva ibheyile, ukuva kwangaphambili okanye ukuchophela ityala elikhulu, ukuqinisekisa (apho ummangalelwa angena khona kwisibongozo), ukufunyanwa, ukuthatha inyathelo langaphambili, ukuvavanywa, ukugwetywa, nokubhena. Malunga nama-90% amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho aphelela ekuwiseni izicelo kunokuba avavanywe.

Inkundla

Iinkundla zamakhaya zisombulula iimpikiswano phakathi kwamaqela azimeleyo `iindivices', amashishini, okanye amaqumrhu karhulumente'apho afuna unyango (ngokuqhelekileyo umonakalo wemali okanye umyalelo) kunokuba afumane isohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho. Umthwalo wobungqina ngu obalulekileyo wobungqina (ngokunokwenzeka kakhulu ukuba uquka iimpikiswano, ingxwabangxwaba, iimpahla, ukungavisisani ngokwempahla, imicimbi yentsapho (ityala, imvume), kunye nocalucalucalulo lwemisebenzi.

Amatyala amakhaya akwabandakanya amacandelo afana nokuvala isikhalazo, impendulo yommangalelwa, ukufunyanwa (kuquka izicelo zoxwebhu), ukuthatha inyathelo, ukuvavanywa kwetyala, kunye nesibheno. Amatyala amaninzi amakhaya ahlala phambi kokuchotshelwa kwetyala, ukuququzelelwa okanye ukukhutshwa. IiNkundla zikhuthaza ngokunamandla isigqibo esithe tye sokunciphisa ukuhlawulwa kwetyala kunye neendleko.

Inkundla yeSigqeba yeRhulumente

Ukuqonda ukuba yeyiphi inkundla enegunya kwityala elithile kubalulekile. Iinkundla zomanyano zinegunya elilinganiselweyo: zingava kuphela amatyala avela phantsi komthetho worhulumente (] onegunya lombuzo ) okanye amatyala apho amaqela asuka kumazwana ahlukeneyo kunye nomlinganiselo wempikiswano ongaphaya ko $75,000 ( ulawulo lweziko lomthetho lwesizwe ). Iinkundla zelizwe zinolawulo jikelele, zinokuva naliphi na icala elingagcinelwanga nkundla zolawulo zorhulumente kuphela. Oko kuthetha ukuba imicimbi yamihla ngemihla (okanye, iza, iimpukatho zezo-trato, ii-mthetho, ii-propati ze-ofisi ze-ofisi ze-ofisi yesizwe) ziyaqumrhuluswa kwiinkundla zelizwe.

Amanye amatyala abandakanya zombini imibandela karhulumente neyorhulumente. Xa oko kwenzeka, asenokubekwa kwinkundla enye, okanye inkundla yengingqi yengingqi ingasebenzisa ulawulo lwesazinge kurhulumente uthelekelelo lomthetho logama nje luvela kwiseti enye yezibakala. Okanye, amatyala anokuba yi- esuka kwinkundla yorhulumente ukuya kwinkundla yolawulo lorhulumente ukuba ummangalelwa umisela ulawulo olunolawulo olusemthethweni.

Amatyala Aphawula Ilizwe Athi Aguqula Inkqubo Yenkundla

Izigqibo eziliqela zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ziye zachaza isiseko nomsebenzi weenkundla zaseMerika:

  • [FLT]] Marbury v. Madison (103): wamisa umgaqo wohlolo lwetyala, unika iinkundla amandla okubhengeza imithetho engekho semthethweni.
  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): uphakamiso lwegunya lorhulumente oluqinisiweyo kunye namandla acetyiweyo eBhunga.
  • [FLT]Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): ijijekile ikhethe lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, ibonakalisa amandla eenkundla ukuqhubela phambili utshintsho lwentlalo.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): ukwenziwa komthetho okufunekayo ukwazisa abakrokreleyo ngamalungelo abo, ngokusisiseko utshintsho iinkqubo zamapolisa kunye namatyala olwaphulo-mthetho.

La matyala abonisa indlela iinkundla ezingazicombululi ngayo nje kuphela iimbambano kodwa nendlela eziwulawula ngayo umgaqo - siseko.

Inkqubo yeNkundla noMthetho: Ulwalamano Oluchaseneyo

Iinkundla kunye namaziko agunyazisa umthetho axhomekeke omnye komnye. Amapolisa ahlola ulwaphulo-mthetho, aqokelele ubungqina, abophe; iinkundla zigqiba ukuba oko kubanjwa kusemthethweni, enoba ubungqina bunokusetyenziswa, nokuba ngaba abamangalelwa banetyala kusini na. IiNkundla zifumana imvume yokuphengulula nokubanjwa, kwaye ahlola izenzo zamapolisa ngokweenkqubo zokuthoba ukuze aphelise ubungqina. Umthetho othe ngokungekho mthethweni wafumana ubungqina, ngumgaqo ongundoqo wokubeka amapolisa esweni.

Ukongezelela, iinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho zijonge ukubekwa kwetyala ngetyala lamalungelo abantu. Abantu abakholelwa ukuba amapolisa awephula amalungelo abo banokumangalelwa kwinkundla karhulumente engaphantsi kwama-42 eUnited States 1983, befuna ilahleko kunye nokungakhuselwa. Le ndlela yezomthetho isebenza ecaleni kwenkundla yezaphuli-mthetho ukuqinisekisa ukuba ukugcinwa komthetho kusemthethweni.

Ukubaluleka Kwenkqubo Yenkundla Kuluntu Lwanamhlanje

Inkqubo yenkundla esebenza ibalulekile kwidemokhrasi. Iqinisekisa ukuba imithetho isetyenziswa ngokulinganayo, ukuba abantu banendawo yokufuna isicombululo sezikhalazo, kwaye igunya likarhulumente liyavavanywa. Ngaphandle kweenkundla, umthetho ubungayi kuba nantsingiselo; amalungelo asemthethweni aya kubakho kwiphepha kuphela. Iinkundla kwakhona zisebenza njengamandla okuzinzisa ngexesha lamanqam ezobupolitika, njengoko kuboniswa kunyulo olukhuphiweyo (umz., [FLT: 0] Bhsh v. Gore, 2000], kunye nocelomngeni lokusebenza kolawulo lwezolawulo.

Ngaphezu koko, iinkundla zikhuthaza inkqubela yezoqoqosho ngokuqinisekisa izivumelwano, ngokuqinisekisa amalungelo empahla, nangokunika izigqibo ezithelekelelwayo. Amashishini axhomekeke kwiinkundla ukucombulula iingxabano zezorhwebo, ukukhusela impahla, nokuxhasa ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo abantu. Abatyali-mali behlabathi lonke bakhangela iinkqubo ezinamandla zokugweba xa begqiba ukuba bafake phi imali.

Kwinjongo zokufundisa, izibonelelo ezinjenge yase-U.S. i-website ye- inika iinkcukacha ezineenkcukacha kwijaji yesizwe, ngelixa i iLegeral Information Institute[ kwiSikolo soMthetho esinika iingcaciso ezibanzi zeenkcazo ezisemthethweni. Abafundi bangahlola izigqibo zomjikelo ngeprojekthi yePhondo [[] Oyezz-Kate-Aklikhi yoMthetho, enika ushicilelo noluvo lwamazwi kunye noluvo olushwayo.

Isiphelo

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