Isakhiwo Senkundla Esibucala

Inkqubo yenkundla ilungelelaniswe njengeqela leqela ukuqinisekisa ukuphumelela, ukungaguquguquki, nokusesikweni. Iinkundla ezisezantsi zisingatha amatyala amaninzi, ngelixa iinkundla eziphezulu zinikela uhlolo zize zimisele imigangatho esemthethweni. Esi sakhiwo sixineneyo sivumela amatyala anyuke ngokuya phezulu ngezibheno, sinika abalawuli amathuba amaninzi okuvavanya izigqibo. Ukuqonda le komiti yecawa linyathelo lokuqala ekuqondeni indlela umthetho osebenza ngayo.

Iqondo ngalinye lenkundla linegunya elahlukileyo, elithetha igunya lokuphulaphula iindidi ezithile zamatyala. Ukubekwa ityala kuxhomekeke kwiimeko ezifana nombandela, isixa semali ephikisanayo, ubungxwabangxwaba bolwaphulo-mthetho, nokuba ngaba libandakanya urhulumente okanye umthetho wesizwe. Eli candelo legunya lithintela nayiphi na inkundla enye ukuba inganyanzeliswa kwaye iqinisekise ukuba abagwebi bahlakulele ubuchule kwiindawo abaqhuba kuzo izihlandlo ezininzi.

Iinkundla Zasekuhlaleni: Isiseko Sokusesikweni

Iinkundla zasekuhlaleni, ezidla ngokubizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zikamasipala, iinkundla zesithili, okanye iinkundla zamagqwetha, yindawo yokungena kwinkqubo yokugweba yabantu abaninzi. Ezi nkundla zisingatha ezona zikhulu zetyala kwaye zezona zifikelelekayo kwinkundla yejaji. Ziinkundla apho abemi abaqhelekileyo badla ngokunxibelelana nenkqubo esemthethweni, enoba ngummangalelwa kwityala lemoto, iqela elikwinkundla encinane, okanye ingqina kwimicimbi yentsapho.

Ukubekwa Ityala Netyala Leenkundla Zasekuhlaleni

Iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zisingatha imicimbi elinganiselweyo ngobungakanani nangobungqongqo. Iindidi eziqhelekileyo ziquka:

  • ukwaphulwa kwemithetho yeTraffic: amatikiti akhawulezileyo, izibane ezibomvu ezibalekayo, kunye nezinye iimpatho ezihambayo zezinye zezona ziqhelekileyo eziviwa kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni.
  • [[QUE:0] Ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho: Iimpazamo ezifana nokuba izinto ezincinane, ukungalungelelani kwehambo, kunye nokuhlasela okulula kuwela phantsi kolawulo lwenkundla yasekuhlaleni.
  • Ityala elithetha iingxabano zamakhaya: Ityala elibandakanya imali encinane ngokwentelekiso, ngokufuthi kuseko kwiseti ethile ebekwe ngumthetho wesizwe, lisombululwe apha ngaphandle kwemfuneko yokumela okungokwasemthethweni okubiza imali eninzi.
  • Imicimbi yomthetho wosapho Ityala lokuqala loqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, inkxaso yomntwana nemiyalelo yokukhusela idla ngokuqala kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni.
  • [[UMTL: 0] iimpikiswano: Iimeko zokhuthuzo kunye neengxabano zomnini ndlu zidla ngokuphathwa kulo mgangatho.

Ityala likhulu ngokwenkcazelo evela kwiZiko leSizwe leeNkundla zikaRhulumente, inkundla yephondo nelasekuhlaleni eUnited States lisingatha amatyala amalunga nama-80 ukusa kwi-100 ezigidi minyaka le. Lo mqulu ubala ubala ugxininisa ukubaluleka kweenkundla zasekuhlaleni njengeenqwelo-moya zenkqubo yokugweba.

Indlela Iinkundla Zasekuhlaleni Ezisebenza Ngayo

Inkundla yasekuhlaleni ngokuqhelekileyo ayimiselwanga njengaleyo isezinkundleni eziphakamileyo. ABagwebi badla ngokuba nendima esebenzayo ekulawuleni amatyala, kwaye imithetho yobungqina ingasetyenziswa ngokuphandle. Kwiinkundla ezininzi zasekuhlaleni, amatyala amancinane abonakala engenalo igqwetha, ngoko ke abagwebi kufuneka baqinisekise ukuba ityala liyaqondakala yaye amalungelo awo onke akhuselwe.

Iiprojekthi ziyahluka ngokwemithetho, kodwa ityala lenkundla lasekuhlaleni libandakanya imbonakalo yokuqala apho kufundwa izityholo, isibongozo, kwaye kusenokumiswa umhla wokuvavanywa kwetyala. Amatyala amaninzi apheliswa ngokucetyiswa okanye ngokuhlaliswa ngaphambi kokuba afikelelwe kwityala. Xa iityala zisenzeka, ngokuqhelekileyo zidla ngokuba ngamatyala ebhentshi, ithetha ukuba ijaji igqiba iziphumo kunokuba ibe yinkundla egwebayo. Noko ke, kwiimeko apho ityala likhoyo, le nkqubo ilandela imigaqo esesikweni ehambelana nocwangciso lwasekuhlaleni.

Izibheno ezivela kwizigwebo zenkundla yasekuhlaleni ngokuqhelekileyo ziya kwinkundla ephakamileyo yamatyala okanye kwinkundla ephakathi kwinkqubo karhulumente. Ulawulo olusikelwe umda lweenkundla zasekuhlaleni luthetha ukuba izigqibo zazo zinokuhlaziywa kwimibuzo yomthetho yaye, kwezinye iimeko, kwiingxelo ezichanekileyo.

Iinkundla Zeli lizwe: Ukusingatha Imibandela Enzulu

Ngaphezu kweenkundla zasekuhlaleni ziinkundla ezigwebayo zephondo jikelele, ezisingatha amatyala anzulu kakhulu. Ezi nkundla zisisiseko senkqubo yokugweba yesizwe kwaye zinegunya lokuphulaphula phantse naliphi na ityala elingabelwanga ngqo kwinkundla yasekuhlaleni okanye kwinkundla ekhethekileyo. Urhulumente ngamnye uqhuba inkqubo yakhe yenkundla, yaye ngoxa izakhiwo zahluka, amalungu aqhelekileyo aquka iinkundla zamatyala, iinkundla eziphakathi, kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo yephondo.

Iinkundla Zetyala Letyala LeNyanga Eqhelekileyo

Iinkundla zetyala zikarhulumente, ezisaziwa ngamagama njengenkundla ephakamileyo, inkundla yesiphaluka, okanye inkundla yesithili exhomekeke kwiphondo, ukusingatha amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, iimbambano zamakhaya ezibandakanya imali eninzi, kunye nezibheno ezivela kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni.

Amatyala anzima, abandakanya amatyala anzima afana nokubulala, ukuphanga kunye nokuhlasela ngokwesini, avavanywa kwezi ntetho. Abameli bamatyala ayingozi banelungelo lokuchotshelwa kwityala labachopheli-tyala, kwaye izibonda zikhulu, nezigwebo ezinokwenzeka eziquka ukuvalelwa entolongweni ixesha elide okanye kwanokuvalelwa entolongweni ubomi bonke. Amatyala amakhaya kwiinkundla zamatyala abandakanya ukudityaniswa kwezivumelwano, ityala lomntu, ukungaphili kakuhle kwempahla, kunye nokuphikiswa ngemicimbi yezoshishino. Imali exambuliweyo ingasuka kumawaka ambalwa eedolara ukuya kwizigidi, kwaye amatyala asenokubandakanya iimini eziliqela okanye iiveki.

Iinkundla zetyala zephondo zikwasiva izibheno ezivela kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni. Lo msebenzi uvumela ukuhlolisiswa ngokutsha kwezigqibo zenkundla yasekuhlaleni, ukuqinisekisa ukuba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni ziyalungiswa kwaye kumiselwe okusesikweni. Kumazwe amaninzi, inkundla echophela ityala ihlola ingxelo evela kwinkundla yasekuhlaleni kwaye isenokuthatha ityala elitsha ukuba kuyimfuneko.

IiNkundla eziBandakanyekileyo

Iinkundla ezichaphazelekayo, ezidla ngokubizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zezibheno okanye iinkundla zesithili zezibheno, zisebenza njengenqanaba lokuqala lokuhlola izigqibo ezenziwa ziinkundla zamatyala. Umsebenzi wazo oyintloko kukuhlolisisa ingxelo yamatyala nokufumanisa ukuba iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni zenzekile ezichaphazele iziphumo zetyala. Ezi nkundla aziphindi ziphinde zijonge amatyala okanye zive ubungqina obutsha; endaweni yoko, zihlola iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni ezinikelwa ngamaqela yaye zibhala iimbono ezichaza izigqibo zazo.

Ukufumaneka kohlolo oluphakathi kunika umnatha wokhuseleko obalulekileyo kwinkqubo yomthetho. Kuvumela amaqela ukuba avavanye izigqibo zokuvavanywa kwenkundla yetyala ngaphandle kokuya ngqo kwinkundla ephakamileyo yelizwe, edla ngokulawulwa yimvume esemthethweni kunesibongozo esikhulu. Kumazwe amaninzi, amaqela anelungelo lokubhenela kwinkundla ephakathi, ithetha ukuba inkundla kufuneka ilive ityala ukuba isibheno sibekwe ngexesha elililo.

Iinkundla ezichaphazelekayo zekhompyutha zidlala indima ephambili ekuphuhlisweni komthetho karhulumente. Iimbono zazo ezipapashiweyo zidala umzekelo osisigxina kwisithili sazo sendawo, zikhokela iinkundla zamatyala zize zinike abagwebi abaxelelwe kwangaphambili. Xa imimandla eyahlukeneyo ifikelela kwizigqibo ezingqubanayo ngomba omnye ongokwasemthethweni, inkundla ephakamileyo yeli lizwe idla ngokungena phambili ukucombulula loo ngxabano ize imisele umgangatho olinganayo kumazwe ahlala kuwo.

IiNkundla Eziphakamileyo Zelizwe

Inkundla ephakamileyo yeli lizwe yeyona nkundla iphakamileyo kwiphondo, isebenza njengenkundla yokugqibela efuna ingqwalaselo kwimicimbi yomthetho karhulumente. Ezi nkomfa zinegunya lokugqibela ekutolikeni komgaqo-siseko wesizwe, imimiselo yorhulumente, kunye nomthetho wesizwe. Izigqibo zazo zibophelelekile kuzo zonke iinkundla eziphantsi kwiphondo kwaye zinokupheliswa kuphela ziinkundla zikarhulumente ukuba kukho umgaqo-siseko obandakanyekileyo.

Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zelizwe zinegunya elilawula izibheno ezininzi, ithetha ukuba zikhetha amatyala okuwaphulaphula. Zikhetha ngokusesikweni amatyala aphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo engomthetho, abandakanya izigqibo ezingqubanayo, okanye aphakamise imiba yemigaqo ebalulekileyo karhulumente. Inani lamatyala aviwa ziinkundla eziphakamileyo liyahluka ngokubanzi, ukusuka kumakhulu ambalwa ukuya kutsho kumawaka aliqela ngonyaka, kuxhomekeka kurhulumente nakwityala lakhe.

Amatyala eenkundla eziphakamileyo zikarhulumente akhethwa ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo, kuquka ukutyunjwa yirhuluneli, unyulo luvela kuwonke-wonke, okanye iinkqubo zokukhetha ezidibanisa zombini iindlela zokungena. Amagama eeofisi asuka kwiminyaka emithandathu ukuya kutsho kubomi, kuxhomekeke kurhulumente. Kumaphondo amaninzi, amatyala aphezulu kufuneka amela unyulo olusemthethweni, apho abavoti bagqiba ukuba bawagcine ekwisikhundla.

Iinkqubo zeNkundla zeLizwe eziNqamlezayo ezihlukeneyo

Ngoxa isakhiwo esiqhelekileyo seenkundla zikarhulumente sithe tye, kukho utshintsho olubalulekileyo. Amanye amaphondo anenkqubo yenkundla emanyeneyo eneseti enye yeenkundla, ngoxa amanye aneenkundla ezahlukeneyo kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo. Umzekelo, amanye amaphondo agcina iinkundla ezahlukeneyo kwimicimbi yeprobate, umthetho wentsapho, kunye namatyala aselula, ngoxa amanye edibanisa le misebenzi njengenkundla enye yamatyala. Amagama eenkundla anokutshintsha-tshintsha ngokuphawulekayo, nto leyo enokubangela ukudideka kwabo bangaqhekeneyo nenkqubo ethile yorhulumente ethile.

Phezu kwazo nje ezi ntlobo, zonke iinkqubo zenkundla yeli lizwe zabelana ngemigaqo efanayo: zilungelelaniswe ngokulandelelana, zinika uhlolo oluphambili, kwaye zisebenza phantsi kwegunya lomgaqo-siseko wesizwe nemithetho. Ukuqonda inkqubo ethile yenkundla yeli lizwe kubalulekile kubenzi bezomthetho nabani na obandakanyekileyo kwilishwa eliphakathi kwelo phondo.

Iinkundla Ezimanyeneyo: Igunya lesiZwe

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo isebenza ngokuhambelana neenkundla zikarhulumente kwaye isingatha amatyala abandakanya umthetho wesizwe, umGaqo-siseko, kunye neembambano phakathi kwamaqela asuka kumazwe awahlukeneyo. Isekwa phantsi kweGatya III lomGaqo-siseko, iinkundla zelifa lesizwe zinegunya elilinganiselweyo, ithetha ukuba zinokuwava kuphela amatyala agunyaziswe ngumthetho wesizwe. Le nkqubo yenkundla yamatyala, esetyenziswa ngamacala omabini esizwe kunye neyamagunya, ingumqondiso owahlukileyo wejaji laseMelika.

IiNkundla ZeSithili zaseUnited States: Umgangatho Wetyala

Iinkundla zesithili zase-U.S. ziintendelezo zenkqubo karhulumente. Kukho iinkundla zesithili ezingama-94 ezisasazwe ngaphaya kweUnited States kunye nemimandla yayo, yaye urhulumente ngamnye ubuncinane unenkundla yesithili esinye. Amazwe amakhulu ahlulwe abe zisithili ezininzi, ezifana neSithili saseMazantsi eNew York okanye iSithili saseMbindini waseKhalifoniya, ukusingatha ukubekwa kwetyala ngokunempumelelo ngakumbi.

Iinkundla zesithili zinegunya lokuqala kumatyala amaninzi karhulumente, kuquka:

  • [ Ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho lolwaphulo-mthetho oluqhelekileyo: ukwaphulwa kwemithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho yengingqi, enjengeyokurhwebelana ngeziyobisi, ukuqhatha, amatyala okufuduka, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho lwelanga olumhlophe, zibekwa ityala enkundleni yesithili.
  • Amatyala e-Civil avela phantsi komthetho wesizwe: iMithetho ebandakanya imimiselo karhulumente, kuquka ukuthethwa kwamalungelo abantu, ukuqhatha kwetyala, kunye nokungavisisani ngempahla yesithili, ziyaviwa kwinkundla yesithili.
  • Amatyala olawulo lobuzwe: iimbambano zabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo abandakanya ngaphezu kwama-$75,000 anokuziswa kwinkundla yequmrhu, nokuba oko kuthethwayo kuvela phantsi komthetho worhulumente.
  • Imithetho ebandakanya urhulumente wesizwe: ichasene namaqumrhu karhulumente, imingeni yemithetho yezomgaqo-siseko, kwaye phantsi koMthetho we-Federal Tort i-Act ibekwe kwinkundla yesithili.
  • Admiralty kunye neemeko zaselwandle: Iints ezibandakanya amanzi anokufumaneka kunye norhwebo lwaselwandle luwa phantsi kolawulo lwezwe.

Inkundla yesithili ilawulwa yiMithetho yeNkundla yaMazwe yaManyeneyo kunye neMithetho yoMbutho weSigwebo sokwaphula umthetho. Iityala zisenokuba kukuvavanywa kwebhentshi okanye ukuvavanywa kwetyala lejaji, kwaye imithetho yephondo iqinisekisa ukuba iinkundla zesithili ziyafana kuzo zonke isithili. Abagwebi benkundla yesithili bamiselwa ubomi obupheleleyo nguMongameli kwaye baqinisekiswe yiNdlu yeeNdlu, ibanika inkululeko kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika.

IiNkundla Zezibheno zaseUnited States: IiNkundla Zesiphaluka

Iinkundla ezili-13 zezibheno zase-U.S. ezikwabizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesiphaluka, ziinkundla eziphakathi kwinkqubo karhulumente. Ishumi elinesibini zezi ntlawulo zilungelelanisiwe ngokwemimandla eninzi, zigquma iziphaluka eziquka amaphondo amaninzi. ISithili seSizwe saseManyeneyo, sinegunya lozweni lonke kwiimeko ezikhethekileyo ezifana nezibheno ezigunyazisiweyo nezibheno ezichasene norhulumente.

Izibheno ezivela kwizigwebo zenkundla yesithili ziviwa yinkundla yezibheno zesiphaluka apho inkundla yesithili ihlala khona. Inkundla yenkundla enika ingxelo iziphumo zengxelo yenkundla yesithili ize igqibe ukuba iimpazamo zenzeke kusini na. Iimpikiswano zidla ngokuviwa ngamacandelo abagwebi abathathu, abapapasha izimvo ezibhalwe phantsi ezingqina isalatha-sithethe phakathi kwesiphaluka. Kwimiba enqabileyo, bonke abagwebi kwisiphaluka bangahlala kunye njengenkundla evaliweyo ukuze baphinde baqwalasele isigqibo seqela kwimbambano ebalulekileyo.

Iinkundla zesiphaluka zinendima ebalulekileyo ekulungiseni umthetho wesizwe. Izigqibo zazo zitolike imimiselo karhulumente, zichaze amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, zimisele nemilinganiselo esemthethweni emele ilandelwe ziinkundla zesithili phakathi kwesiphaluka. Xa iziphaluka zingavumelani nembambano engomthetho, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isenokungenelela ukucombulula loo ngxabano. Iimbono ezipapashwayo zeenkundla zesiphaluka zingumthombo oyintloko womthetho karhulumente yaye zicatshulwe kakhulu ngamagqwetha nabagwebi.

Iinkundla Zomanyano Ezikhethekileyo

Ukongeza kwiinkundla zephondo jikelele, iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zisingatha iindidi ezithile zamatyala. Ezi ziquka:

  • U.S. iiNkundla zeBhanki eziBanki: Amacandelo eenkundla zesithili asingatha ukuhla kwemali phantsi komthetho wolawulo oluwisiweyo.
  • Inkundla yase-U.S. kwiingxelo zoManyano zoManyano: ivakala izibhengezo zomonakalo wemali nxamnye norhulumente waseUnited States.
  • Inkundla yezorhwebo yezizwe ngezizwe eUnited States isingatha amatyala abandakanya urhwebo lwezizwe ngezizwe kunye nemithetho yezithethe.
  • Inkundla yerhafu yase-U.S. ivakala iingxwabangxwaba phakathi kwababuthi berhafu kunye nenkonzo yengeniso yangaphakathi.
  • [[UMTL:0] INkundla yezibheno yase-U.S. yeNkqutyana yeZibheno zeNkcukacha: Izigqibo zohlolo zeSebe leMicimbi yeNkqutyana yePhondo yePhondo yeNkcubeko yeNtshona Koloni malunga neenzuzo.

Ezi nkundla zikhethekileyo zikhupha izigqibo zamatyala afuna ubuchule obuthile kwaye ziqinisekisa ukusetyenziswa okungaguquguqukiyo kweenkalo zazo zomthetho.

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States yeyona nkundla iphakamileyo kwinkqubo karhulumente nenkundla yemiba yokugqibela yokusetyenziswa kwemigaqo yomthetho karhulumente kunye nenkcazelo yomGaqo-siseko. Yamiselwa liGatya III lomGaqo-siseko, iNkundla yaqalisa umsebenzi wayo ngo-1789 yaye ukususela ngoko iye yadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuxonxeni umthetho nebutho labantu baseMerika. INkundla ihleli kwincopho yequmrhu lezomthetho, kwaye izigqibo zayo zisebenza kuzo zonke ezinye iinkundla zohlanga.

Idinga kunye neSigqibo

INkundla ePhakamileyo inezigwebo ezisithoba: iJaji enye ePhakamileyo kunye neziSekela-bulungisa ezisibhozo ezimanyeneyo. Inani labagwebi limiselwe yiBhunga kwaye liye lahlala likwisithoba ukususela ngowe-1869. Amatyala atyunjwa nguMongameli kwaye kufuneka aqinisekiswe yiNdlu yeeNtlanganiso. Akhonza ukumiselwa kobomi bonke, okuzikhusela kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika kwaye kuqinisekisa inkululeko yokulawula.

Inkqubo yokumisa yeyezobupolitika kwaye idla ngokuthanda ukuphikisana. Abaphathi boomongameli bafuna abavisisani nentanda-bulumko yabo egwebayo, kunye nengqinisekiso yeNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNyanga zihlola iimfaneleko zomtyunjwa, iimbono ezingokwasemthethweni, kunye nemigangatho yemilinganiselo yokuziphatha.

IJaji ePhakamileyo isebenza njengentloko yeNkundla, ikhokela kwiingxoxo ezidluliselwa ngomlomo neengqungquthela, inikela ukubhalwa kweembono xa iphakathi kwenkoliso, yaye ijonge ulawulo lweenkundla zelifa lesizwe. IJaji ePhathiswayo ikwangamela iimvavanyo zobumongameli kwiNdlu yeeNtlanganiso.

Amandla Okuphengulula Ngokweejaji

Owona mandla abalulekileyo asetyenziswa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo kukuhlola okulawulayo: igunya lokuvakalisa imithetho kunye nezenzo zolawulo ezingekho mgaqweni. Eli gunya lamiselwa kwityala lephawu Marbury v. Madison [1803], apho iJaji ePhakamileyo uJohn Marshall wabhala khona ukuba "kugxininisa iphondo kunye nesebe lezomthetho ukuchaza oko umthetho." Ukususela ngoko, iNkuNkundla iye yasebenzisa uhlolo lomthetho ukuphelisa amakhulu emithetho yesizwe neyombuso, ibumba imidanga yegunya likarhulumente kunye nelungelo ngalinye.

Uhlolo lwezomthetho alukhankanywa ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, kodwa luye lwaba ngumgaqo wesiseko womthetho-siseko waseMelika. Ukuqhelisela kweNkundla uhlolo lwezigqibo kukhokelela kwezinye zezigqibo zeziphumo kwimbali ye-U.S., kuquka Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954], eyathi ichaza ukuba uhlanga lukwizikolo ezingekho sigqeba, kunye bergefell v. Hodges (20)], eyamkela ukuthembeka komtshato ofanayo.

Inkqubo yeCertiorari

INkundla Ephakamileyo ifumana izibongozo ezimalunga nama-7 000 ukuya kuma-8 000 zokuhlola ibinzana ngalinye, kodwa ithetha kuphela amatyala angama-80 ukuya kwali-100. Amatyala amaninzi awavunywa, ithetha ukuba inkundla esezantsi imele igqitywe. INkundla isebenzisa igunya elilawulayo, ikhetha amatyala okuwaphulaphula ngokulandela i-certiorari.

Inkqubo ye-certiorari iqala ngokufaka isicelo seqela elicela iNkundla ukuba ihlole isigqibo senkundla esisezantsi. Esi sibongozo sisasazwa phakathi kwabagwebi, ngamnye wabo asihlola ngoncedo loomabhalane bomthetho. Ityala linikwa ityala le-certiori ukuba ubuncinane abagwebi abane bavote ukusiva, umthetho owaziwa ngokuba "ngumthetho wezine". Inkundla isenokuphinda inike amatyala abandakanya izigqibo zenkundla yesiphaluka, iphakamise umbuzo obalulekileyo womthetho wesizwe, okanye iphakamise umbango womgaqo-siseko ofuna isigqibo.

Xa iCertiorari ivunyiwe, amatheko afaka iingxubusho ezibhaliweyo nezikhoyo phambi kweNkundla. Amatyala athetha ngasese, axubusha ngetyala, aze avote ngeziphumo. Uluvo lweNkundla lubhaliswe ngomthetho ogunyaziswe yiNtloko yoMahluleli oMkhulu ukuba kuninzi, okanye ngowona mgwebi omkhulu kuninzi ukuba iJaji ePhathiswayo ayivumelani. Iimbono neembono eziqulunqayo zisenokubhalwa, ukunikeza ezinye iingcamango kunye neembono.

Izigqibo Zophawu Nemiphumo Yazo

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zibumbe phantse zonke iinkalo zobomi baseMerika. Kummandla wamalungelo omntu ngamnye, iNkundla ichaze umlinganiselo wenkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, ukuzimela, kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho. Kwindawo yenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, iNkundla imisele imithetho elawula uphando nokuphazanyiswa, ilungelo lokucebisa, nokuthintela ukunyanzelisa umlomo womntu ngamnye. Kumo wolawulo lwamazwe, iNkuNkundla idibanise imida phakathi korhulumente norhulumente.

Ezinye zezigqibo ezinempembelelo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo ziquka ezi:

  • Marbury v. Madison[[FL:1] (103): uhlolo lwetyala olumiselweyo.
  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Ukuqinisekisa ubungangamsha borhulumente kunye namandla achaziweyo eBhunga.
  • GEBBON v. Ogden (1824): Yandisa umlinganiselo wegunya lezwe kurhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe.
  • red Scott v. Sandford (1857): Ubumi abuvumelekanga kubemi baseAfrika baseMerika, kamva behliswa zingcibi zemfazwe yamakhaya.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Plessy v. Ferguson (1996): Ukudibanisa ucalulo phantsi kwe "Imfundiso ehlukeneyo kodwa elinganayo", kamva iphendulwe yi Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo.
  • [[NTLA:0] Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Kuyimfuneko ukunyanzelisa umthetho ukuba wazise abarhanela amalungelo abo phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya.
  • [[NTL:0] Roe v. Ukubona umgaqo-siseko we-[FLT] (1973): Wamkela ilungelo lokuqhomfa, kamva wabhukuqwa ngu Dobs v. Jackson Amabhinqa 'Augrain Organization yempilo [2022].
  • [[UMTL: 0] I-Citizens ye-United v.FEC (2010): Ivumele inkampani engaphandle epheleleyo kunye nokuchitha imali kwintetho yezobupolitika.

Sinye sezi zigqibo sibonakalisa ukutyhilwa okutshintshayo kweNkundla ngomGaqo-siseko nokusabela kwayo ekutshintsheni iimeko zentlalo nezezobupolitika.

Ulwalamano Phakathi KweeNkundla Zorhulumente NezoManyano

Ukuqonda indlela iinkundla zikarhulumente nekarhulumente ezisebenzisana ngayo kubalulekile ukuze kufunyanwe ngokupheleleyo inkqubo yokugweba yaseMerika. Umgaqo wolawulo olubini uthetha ukuba inkundla yorhulumente neyorhulumente zisebenza ngokwayo ngokweenkundla zazo, kodwa amatyala anokuhamba phakathi kwezi nkqubo zimbini kwiimeko ezithile.

Ulongamo Olumanyeneyo Nomanyano

Iinkqubo zenkundla yelifa lesizwe nelaseburhulumenteni zihlala kunye phantsi kwenkqubo yolawulo. Iinkundla zikarhulumente zinegunya eliphangaleleyo kwimicimbi yomthetho wesizwe, ngoxa iinkundla zelifa lemveli zinegunya elilinganiselweyo kwimicimbi karhulumente. Iinkundla ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni zisombulula kwiinkundla zikarhulumente, ezisingatha uninzi lwamatyala eUnited States. Iinkundla zoMasipala zisingatha ityala elincinane kodwa elibalulekileyo elibandakanya imibuzo karhulumente kunye nolawulo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo.

Kwezinye iimeko, ingqokelela enye yezibakala inganyusa izibhengezo zorhulumente nezesizwe. Umzekelo, ukwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu kusenokusebenza phantsi komthetho worhulumente kunye nemithetho yamalungelo abantu karhulumente. Kwimeko ezinjalo, umchasi-mthetho unokukhetha ukufaka ifayile kurhulumente okanye kwinkundla yesizwe, okanye angafaka zonke ezi zinto kwinkundla enye ukuba inkundla inegunya kuwo omabini.

Ukususwa kunye nokungazenzi

Amacandelo anokulawula ukuba ityala liviwe kwinkundla yephondo okanye yesizwe. Ummangalelwa kwityala lenkundla yenkundla karhulumente ebenokubekwa kwinkundla yenkundla yephondo angalisusa eli tyala kwinkundla yesithili yesithili yephondo inkundla yeli lizwe ehleli kuyo. Eli lungelo lokususwa likhona kwiimeko ezibandakanya imibuzo karhulumente okanye ulawulo lobuzwe. Xa lishenxiswa, elo tyala liqhubeka kwinkundla yesizwe phantsi kwemithetho yesizwe egunya.

Ngokwahlukileyo koko, iinkundla zikarhulumente zisenokungaphulaphuli amatyala athile abandakanya imicimbi yomthetho karhulumente engalungiswanga, ibhekisa kwiinkundla zikarhulumente ukugqiba ezo ngxaki kuqala. Imfundiso yokungaququzeli, ephuhliswa ngezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo, ibonakalisa imigaqo yokufana nokuhlonela iinkqubo zenkundla yeli lizwe.

Izibheno ezivela kwiiNkundla zeLizwe ukuya kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla Ephakamileyo inalo igunya lokuhlola izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla eziphakamileyo zikarhulumente xa ezo zigwebo zibandakanya imbambano karhulumente. Ukuba inkundla yeli lizwe igqiba ngetyala elisekelwe kumthetho karhulumente okanye kumGaqo-siseko, umbutho olahlekileyo unokucela iNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba ifumane imvume yokukhusela isibeleko. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayizukuhlola izigqibo zenkundla zenkundla ezisekelwe kwimimiselo yomthetho karhulumente eyaneleyo nezimeleyo, nto leyo ethetha ukuba ukucaciswa kwenkundla yezomthetho karhulumente kuyabophazantiswa yaye akuyi kuqwalaselwa ngurhulumente.

Eli gunya lilinganiselweyo limisela ukuba iNkundla Ephakamileyo isebenze njengommeli wokugqibela womthetho karhulumente ngaphandle kokulichasa igunya lenkundla kurhulumente kwimibuzo yomthetho.

Isizathu Sokuba Ukuqonda Imibandela Evela Kwinkundla

Kubafundi, abafundisi-mfundo, iingcali zomthetho, nabemi, ukuqonda isakhiwo senkqubo yenkundla kubalulekile ngenxa yezizathu eziliqela. Okokuqala, kunika isiseko sokuqonda indlela iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni eziconjululwa ngayo nendlela okusetyenziswa ngayo okusesikweni. Okwesibini, kunceda abantu bakwazi ukulawula inkqubo esemthethweni ngokunempumelelo, enoba bakwiqela lokumangalela, ukuququzelela inkundla yetyala, okanye ukujongwa. Okwesithathu, kukhuthaza uxabiso ngomthetho nangendima yejaji ezimeleyo ekukhuseleni amalungelo nokugcina ucwangco lwentlalo.

Inkqubo yenkundla asiyonkqubo yomthetho eyomileyo; yinkqubo yokuphila echaphazela ubomi bommi ngamnye. Kwinkundla yasekuhlaleni esingatha itikiti letrafiki kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo egqiba ukuba ngumgaqo-siseko womthetho wesizwe, umganyana ngamnye wejaji ufeza indima ebalulekileyo ekuxhaseni imigaqo yokusesikweni nenkqubo efanelekileyo. Ngokufunda ngale ntendelezo, abantu banokuwaqonda kakuhle amalungelo abo, iimbopheleleko zabo, kunye nemithetho elawula ibutho labo.

Ukongezelela, ulwazi lwenkundla lubalulekile ekugananeni kwezentlalo. IMisebenzi eyiqonda inkqubo yokugweba ixhotyiswe kakuhle ukuvavanya abaza kugweba, ukuba nenxaxheba kwiingxubusho ezingendlela yokulungisa inkundla, nokuthethelela iinguqulelo eziphucula ukufikelela kobulungisa. Iinkundla zesebe likarhulumente elilinganayo, kwaye ulwazi lwabemi lubalulekile ukuze balondoloze inkululeko yabo kunye nokusebenza kwabo.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo yenkundla yaseMerika, ukusuka kwiinkundla zasekuhlaleni ukuya kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, sisakhiwo esintsonkothileyo kodwa esilungelelanisiweyo esilungiselelwe ukudlulisela okusesikweni ngendlela engaguquguqukiyo nefanelekileyo. Iinkundla zoluntu zinika ubulungisa obufikelelekayo kwimicimbi yemihla ngemihla, iinkundla zikarhulumente zisingatha intlawulo enzulu, iinkundla zephondo zinyanzelisa imithetho yesizwe zize zikhusele amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo inegunya lokugqibela kwimibandela yokucaciswa komthetho karhulumente kunye neyomGaqo-siseko. Umgangatho ngamnye wenkqubo unemisebenzi eyahlukeneyo, iinkqubo, kunye nemimandla yobuchule, kodwa zonke iinkundla zabelana ngenjongo efanayo yokuxhasa umthetho.

Ukuqonda le migangatho asiyonkqubo yemfundo nje. Sisixhobo esisebenzayo kuye nabani na onokuba nento yokwenza nenkqubo engokwasemthethweni, enoba ngumgwebi, ijaji, ingqina, okanye ummi onolwazi. Iinkundla zisisiseko sedemokhrasi, kwaye uxabiso ngesiseko sazo nomsebenzi wazo kubalulekile ukuze zikwazi ukuthatha inxaxheba ngokupheleleyo kubomi bentlalo-ntle yabantu. Ngokufunda ngenkqubo yenkundla, abantu banokuwaqonda kakuhle amalungelo abo, balungelelanise imigaqo esemthethweni, kwaye banikele kwigalelo lomsebenzi oqhubekayo wokwakha ibutho labantu elinobulungisa.