Ilungelo lokujamelana nabamangaleli ekumangalelweni ngokusemthethweni lisiseko sobulungisa obuye bavela kwiinkulungwane, bubumba iinkqubo zomthetho oqhelekileyo kunye nokuphembelela inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho ehlabathini lonke. Eli lungelo liqinisekisa ukuba abantu abamangalelwayo banethuba elifanelekileyo lokujamelana nabo banikela ubungqina obuchasene nabo, ukuvavanya ubungqina obunikelwayo, nokulwa nokulandelana nokugcinwa kwenyaniso. Eli nqaku lisebenza njengenkuselo ebalulekileyo kwiinkolelo eziphosakeleyo, ukunyanzela ukuvuma, kunye nobungqina obuyimfihlo bobugxwayiba. Uhambo lwembali lwalo lungelo , qhawe linethuba lokuvavanywa kwalo ngeminyaka ephakathi kwesiNgesi, ukusukela kwimimiselo yanamhlanje nakwizivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe.

Imvelaphi Engokwembali Yelungelo

Imvelaphi yelungelo lokujamelana namangqina ingafunyanwa kwiinkqubo zomthetho zamandulo, kodwa umnombo wayo ongqalileyo usekelwe kwi-Ngilani yamaxesha aphakathi. Ngaphambi kokuvela kwetyala lomthetho wamaNgesi, iJavani yamandulo yayixhomekeke kwiintlobo zobungqina obungobuchule obufana nokuvavanywa ngovavanyo, ukuvavanywa ngomlo, nokuququzelelwa ngomlo, kunye nokuququzelelwa (i-oathâgaing). Ezi ndlela azibandakanyanga bungqina obuphilayo, ingaba kungathethwanga. Ilungelo lalingekho ngenxa yokuba abamangalelwa babengenalo lokubuza abamangalelwa ngayo nayiphi na ingqiqo.

Ukutshintsha kwaqala ngobukhulu be Clarendon (116) kunye nokuphuhliswa kwenkqubo yabachopheli-tyala phantsi kukaHenry II. Abachopheli babengamangqina ntlandlolo anikela inkcazelo esekelwe kulwazi lwasekuhlaleni. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, abachopheli bejaji bajika baba liqumrhu elivayo amangqina anikelwa enkundleni. Noko ke, abamangalelwa ngokufuthi babejongene nabamangaleli abangaziwayo kunye nobungqina obufihlakeleyo, ingakumbi kwiimvavanyo zezopolitilizelo kunye nokuvukelwa kwetyala. [FLD] Imithetho yelizwe, ngoxa ingakhankanyisanga isiseko, ibekwe ngokuchaza kwiSahluko 45 ukuba “akukho mntu okhululekileyo oza kuba emsulwa. . . . .

Ngenkulungwane ye-14 neye-15, iPalamente yamisela imimiselo (umz. 1352, 1367) eyayifuna amangqina ekungcatshani nokuvela kwamatyala. Kodwa, lo mthetho uqhelekileyo wahlala ubambene. Ngokuthe ngcembe waquka ingcamango yokuba ummangalelwa unelungelo lokuba abekho nokuva ubungqina nxamnye nawo. Ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-15, uMnu John Fortescue, kumsebenzi wakhe [[FLT: 0] uDe Bus Legame Anglia , wancoma uqheliselo lwesiNgesi lokumangalelwa ngokuvula ngamangqina. Eli xesha liphawulwe licothayo kodwa lihamba phambili kwimodeli ye-RC.

Uphuhliso Ngembali Yasemthethweni

Inkulungwane yeshumi elinesithandathu neyeshumi elinesixhenxe: Ukusuka KwiProcessings Emfihlelo Ukuya Kudityaniswa

Inkulungwane ye-16 neye-17 yangqinela utshintsho olukhulu kwinkqubo yezolwaphulo-mthetho lwamaNgesi. Ityala elidume kakubi likaMhlekazi Walter Raleigh ngo1603 laba yindawo yokuguqula inguquko. URaleigh wagwetywa ngokusemthethweni ngenxa yokuvunywa kwetyala ngenxa yokubhaliweyo ngumphathi ongomnye ongazange avele enkundleni. URaleigh wafuna ngokuphindaphindiweyo ilungelo lokujamelana nommangaleli wakhe, uLord Cobam, kodwa inkundla yasikhaba. Eli tyala labhenca ukungabikho kobungqina obuyimfihlo kwaye lavuselela uluvo lukawonke wonke ekuxhaseni amalungelo emfazwe. Abahlalutyi bezomthetho, kuquka uMhlengi u Edward Coke, baphikisa ukuba amatyala amele avunyelwe ukuvavanyelwa amangqina awo ukuze avavanye ukuthembeka.

Ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwe-mouse Stuart yeNkcubeko yeStuart neKhomishini Ephakamileyo − iikhomkhulu ezazisebenza ngaphandle kwemiqathango yejaji kwaye ngokufuthi zazixhomekeke kwiimfuno ezibhaliweyo zokuhlaziywa kwemali. Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya namaNgesi kunye nokuBuyiselwa, iPalamente yasiphula iSiko leNte yeNtengo ngo 1661. Ekupheleni koo-1600, umthetho oqhelekileyo wawuwuseke ngokuqinileyo umgaqo wokuba ubungqina bumele bunikelwe ngomlomo nakuluhlu lwamangqina, ukuba kuvele ukunqumla ku-table 76 e-ase-ase-semgceni okanye ngesiluleko. Umthetho we-Treath wanika abaninzi aba bakhuseli, ufuna amangqina amabini akwisenzo esifanayo kwaye unika abamangalelwayo ilungelo lokuba babe neekopi zetyala, banikezelwe ngoluhlu lwamangqina.

IMelika yobuthanga nophuhliso loMgaqo-nkqubo kaClaus

Izithethe zomthetho zamaNgesi zahamba ukuya kumathanga aseMerika, apho amalungelo ongquzulwano ayesoloko equkwa kwimithetho-siseko yomthetho yamathanga kunye nemithetho esemthethweni. Umzekelo, iMassachusetts Body of Libertes (1641) iqinisekisa ukuba “bonke ubomi bomntu okanye ilungu okanye igama okanye impahla okanye impahla ayizukuthatyathwa ... kodwa ngaphandle kokuba... ivunyelwe ukuba ibonwe, ijongene. Ngokukwanjalo, iPennsylvania Frame of Government (16882) kunye neNew York Charter of Liberles (1683) iqula imigaqo yenkcaso.

Amava eekoloni kunye nenkqubo yeqela leBritane yeenkundla zezomthetho ezizimeleyo kunye nokusetyenziswa “kwamangqina aphesheya” kwafak ’ isandla kwizityholo ezakhokelela kwiNguquko. Isibhengezo se-Imprence sadwelisa ukukhanyelwa kwetyala ngabachopheli-tyala njengezikhalazo, kodwa ukukhanyelwa kongquzulwa kongquzulwano kwakwayinkxalabo. Emva kokuzimela, iBhili yamaLungelo, eyathiwe ngo179 kwaye yagunyaziswa ngo179111, yaquka iSindululo seSithandathu, esithi ngokucacileyo sithi: “Kuzo zonke izityholo zezaphuli-mthetho, iza kunandipha ilungelo lokumangalelwa... ukujamelana namangqina nxamnye naye." Esi sithetha ukuba sisesona sisesona sigqibo somthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho-mthetho saseMerika, sibonakalisa isigqibo sothintelo lwezinyuko lwezinyuko lwezileyo zizezo zikhohlolo-yomfihlekile kunye neenkolelo ezingekho silungileyo ezithe phantsi kolawulo saseBritani.

Iziganeko Eziphambili Ezingokwasemthethweni

IBhili yamaNgesi Yamalungelo (1689)

Nangona ixhalabele kakhulu amagunya olawulo lookumkani kunye nePalamente, iBhili yamaNgesi yamaLungelo yayiqulathe amalungiselelo awayexhasa ilungelo lokujamelana nabamangaleli. Inqaku le-10 lagxeka “ukufuna ibheyile eninzi yabantu abawenzileyo kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho ... kwaye bonke abantu banika izithembiso zemali kunye nezithembiso zokuhlawulwa kwabantu abathile phambi kokuvunyelwa.” Ngokuthe ngqo, uBill wamalungelo oluntu waqinisekisa ilungelo lokucela kukumkani kwaye walela ukuba “bahlawuli besohlwayo ngokungaqhelekanga.” Abaphengululi bezomthetho basoloko bekhomba iBhili kwi-169 njengenxalenye yombutho othelekele iinkqubo zokuvavanywa ngokusesikweni, kuquka nokuvumela abamangalelwa ukuba bajongene namangqina.

UMthetho weSithandathu (1791)

IsiHlanuso-Mpanzi seSithandathu sisiqinisekiso esicacileyo selungelo lokudibana namangqina kwilizwe lesiNgesi elithethayo. Sinika oku: “Kuzo zonke iinkundla zolwaphulo-mthetho, ummangalelwa uza kunandipha ilungelo ... ukujamelana namangqina anxamnye naye.” Le ngxelo isebenza kurhulumente wesizwe, kwaye kusetyenziswa iSindululo se 1449 soMphetho ka-Singiseko ka-Mouse Claus, sifakelwe ukusebenzisa ngokuchasene nomazwe (bona [] iPointer v.[FLT]], iTexas[3], 400.S.65). Inkundla ePhakah'okuPhakamileyo ichazwa ngu-Clast Clauslausston ukuze inikeze ukhuseleko olucacileyo: [FL:] [FLN], kwaye ibonise ukuma kobukho kwasekunene, amangqina okunqamle kwe-Cextranston.[4]

Ukwamkelwa Kwamazwe Ngamazwe

Ilungelo lokujamelana nabamangaleli alingolodwa eUnited States. Liyaqashelwa kwiinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho, kuquka ezo zeUnited Kingdom, Canada, Australia, kunye namazwe aseYurophu. Isivumelwano sezizwe ngezizwe kuMalungelo aphakathi kunye nePhondo (ICPR)[FL:1], ISiqendu 14(3), iSiqendu (e), siqinisekisa ukuba “ukuhlola, okanye ukuvavanya, amangqina ngokuchasene naye nokufumana amangqina kunye nokuvavanywa kwawo phantsi kweemeko ezifanayo.” [[FLT:] Isivumelwano se-Euconfician kuMalungelo oluntu [FORT] [FLT] [FLT] [FULT] [3] [ult], iSigqeqenti (3), iSiphakathi (3) esinamatyala) ngokunjalo, ilungiselela ukuba kuvavanywe okanye kuvavanywe iizixhobo ezikhoyo emhlabeni jikelele. Ngokokuthethwa ngomthetho oluqhelekileyo, ngokokwahlukeneyo, ngoko kuthethwa ngobungqina obuninzi, ngokokuthethwayo, ngoko kuthethwa ngobungqina obuselulwayokuthethwa

Ukubaluleka Kwale Mihla

Namhlanje, ilungelo lokujamelana nabamangaleli liseyinxenye ebalulekileyo yenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho ehlabathini lonke. Inika iziphumo ezininzi: ivumela u-SHIFlumend ukuba abone indlela abaphethe ngayo amangqina, abhenca ukungangqinelani kunye nokungavumelani ngethuba lokunqamleza u-parapie, kwaye athintele ubungqina bobuxoki okanye obulahlekisayo. Ilungelo likwaxhasa ukukwazi kommangalelwa ukuba nenxaxheba ngokunenjongo ekuzikhuseleni. Ngaphandle kokuxambulisa, ukuvavanywa kubeka engozini yokuba yinkundla yamatyala apho ummangalelwa ekwili lingumbandela nje owenzileyo kunokuba abe ngumxhasi okhutheleyo.

EUnited States, iBhali lika-Claus ibingumbandela wemfundiso ebanzi yeNkundla Ephakamileyo. Emva Crawford, iinkundla kufuneka zahlule phakathi “kokulinganisela” kunye“ nokungaphili----” luvava. Iintetho ezichaphazelekayo. [[5] Iingxelo ezithenjiweyo, ezilungiselelwe iinjongo zesiqhelo) aziwuchazi umtyaba ukuba zisuka kwihewu. Oku kuye kwabonakala kuthandabuza, kwaye kuye kwabangela umgaqo omkhulu wobugxwayiba. [Foctive:] [2] [5]

Ilungelo likwaneziphumo ezisebenzisekayo kumthetho wangoku wobungqina. Imithetho yokuphulaphula kulawulo lomthetho oluqhelekileyo yenzelwe ukuthintela amaqumrhu angaxhomekekanga kwiingxelo ezingavavanywanga. Imfuneko yongquzulwano inika umaleko owongezelelekileyo wokhuseleko, iqinisekisa ukuba amangqina akhona ukuze anqamleze. Kwinkqubo yomthetho wasekuhlaleni, ngoxa amalungelo asesikweni enkcaso esenokungabi cacileyo, abamangalelwa ngokubanzi banelungelo lokubuza amangqina ngomgwebi okanye ngqo, kunye nokuvavanya ubungqina obuziswa ngabatshutshisi.

Iingxaki Neengxubakaxaka

Ukulungelelanisa Izilangazelelo Ezidityanisiweyo

Phezu kwako nje ukubaluleka kwawo, ilungelo lokujamelana namangqina aliphelelanga. Iinkundla kufuneka zililinganise ngokuchasene nezinye izilangazelelo ezinyanzelisayo, njengamangqina angenabungozi (abantwana, amaxhoba okuhlaselwa ngokwesini, abantu abaneziphene zengqondo), ukhuseleko lobuzwe, nokuqinisekisa ukhuseleko lwamangqina awoyika ukuziphindezela. Iinkundla ezininzi zimisele iinkqubo ezikhethekileyo zokuvumela amangqina anokuchanabeka anokunikela ubungqina obuvaliweyo ngomabonwakude okanye ngokufaka ividiyo kumabonwakude, ukuba ummangalelwa agcine ithuba elibalulekileyo lokunqamleza. [[FLT:] U.S. INkundla ephakamileyo ixhasa ukusetyenziswa koovimba abavaliweyo koovimba bekhompyutha kubantwana abakwi-[FLC.] .[FLT] v [FFLD] [3], 497], U.[196], i-U.S.[19]

Intetho Engaqhelekanga Neyokungaphulaphuli

Ngokungafaniyo nomthetho wolu hlebethi ``````[FLT']], iinkundla zifuna ukuba abatshutshisi babonise ukungafezeki kobungqina, amazwi avuyisekileyo, kunye neengxelo ezichasene nomdla(*) zivumele ukusungula kweengxelo ezingqina ngaphandle kongquzulwano ukuba umkhuphi akanalo. Noko ke, iposi[FLT], iinkundla zifuna ukuba abatshutshisi babonise ukungagqibeki kobungqina kwaye ummangalelwa ubeneli akanakukhalaza ngokuvunyelwa kokungabotshwa kobungqina. Oku kwalawulwa ngumthetho oyaziwa ngomthetho. [[FLT] [FLT:] [5], [5], u-FLT], u-FLT] u-FLT] uvilective owenzileyo, uviza ityala lokunganyani ekuyeni kwetyala.[Flctreans], uzama ukuzama ukuzama ukugweba, u-unyuso oluthelelayoku.[200]

Ukhuseleko Lwesizwe Nobungqina Obulungelelanisiweyo

Kwiimeko ezibandakanya ubugrogrisi, ii-othorion, okanye ezinye imicimbi eziphazamisayo, maxa wambi oorhulumente bazama ukuthembela kubungqina obungachazwa ngokupheleleyo kummangalelwa. Oku kubangela ukuchanabeka okuthe ngqo nengxoxo elungileyo. Noko ke, amazwe amaninzi aye amkela iinkqubo ezikhethekileyo zokuxhasa okanye avala iinkqubo zokuxhasa iiprojekthi (umz., iJaji neSivumelwano sokhuseleko se-United Kingdom, okanye uMthetho woKhuselo lwamatyala woMkhosi ka-2013, i-ImGraine ne-Frefuredetet Act eK. Inkundla yamalungelo abantu i-European Resources ikholelwa ukuba nangona imicimbi yokhuseleko yesizwe ifanelekile, imele inikwe inkcazelo eyaneleyo ukuze kuvunywe ucelomngeni; ukusetyenziswa kobungqina obusemfihlekileyo ngaphandle kokwahlulwa kwe-ESCRCS.

Ukuhamba Kwamanani Nokungabonwa Kwabantu

Ubugcisa bezi mini buneengxaki ezintsha. Ukunyuka kwemiba yekhompyutha kunye nezisongelo ze-intanethi kuye kwakhokelela ekubeni amangqina angaziwayo angqine oko kuboniswa okanye agqwethe ilizwi. Iinkundla kufuneka ziqinisekise ukuba loo manyathelo awamhluli ummangalelwa ukuba angamniki ubuchule bokuqinisekisa ukuba uthembekile. Ngokufanayo, ukusebenzisa iikhamera zomzimba . Ubungqina bezentlalo-ntle, kunye nezinye iingxelo zamanani ziphakamisa imibuzo ngokokuba kumele kutheni “ukungalingani na”. Njengokuba ubugcisa butshintsha, umthetho kuza kufuneka ulungelelanise ngaphandle kokunikezela ngemilinganiselo engundoqo yokungquzulana.

Isiphelo

Ilungelo lokujamelana nabamangaleli linemvelaphi enzulu yembali, ukusuka eNgilani yamaxesha aphakathi ukuya kumthetho wezizwe ngezizwe. Uhambo lwalo lubonisa ukuzinikela kwebutho labantu ekungakhethileni, ekuboneni, nasekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu. Ngoxa ilungelo licociwe kwaye maxa wambi lilinganiselwe ngamaxhala okukhuphisana, lihlala liyinkuselo engenakuthelekiswa nako nokuqiniseka okungenasizathu kunye nobungqina obufihlakeleyo. Njengoko iinkqubo zomthetho ziqhubeka ziguqula iintsomiswana, ubugcisa obutsha, kunye nomgaqo omtsha wongquzulwano uza kuqhubeka njengomqondiso wokusesikweni. Iinkundla, izigwebo, kunye nabenzi-mthetho kufuneka baqhubeke belungelelanisa oku kunye nezinye izilangazelelo ezifanelekileyo, bekhumbula ukuba injongo engundoqo yokuvavanywa ikukufikelela kwinyaniso ngenkqubo enxulumene nesidima kunye nesidima sabalelwa.