Isiseko somGaqo-siseko senkqubo elindelekileyo: Oko Kufuneka Ukwazi

Ingcamango yenkqubo efunekayo ikwisiseko solawulo lwezigwebo zephondo laseMelika, ikhusi elichasene nesenzo sorhulumente esizikhetheleyo esisongela ubomi, inkululeko, okanye ipropati. Le nqaku lisekelwe kwiinkulungwane zesithethe esisemthethweni, inkqubo efunekayo ibekwe kuMgaqo-siseko okwiSihlanu kunye neSinethi YesiGqeba, ukwenza ukhuseleko olubini olusebenza koorhulumente borhulumente kunye noorhulumente. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iziseko zomgaqo-siseko senkqubo efanelekileyo, lilandela imvelaphi yalo embalini, likhupha amasebe alo amabini amakhulu i— iprocedtural kunye nomzantsi oMgatya-— kwaye lihlola indlela amatyala abalaseleyo angundoqo kunye nemingeni enkulungwane engoku aqhubeka elungele ukubumba intsingiselo yawo kwinkulungwane yama-21.

Imvelaphi Yembali Yenkqubo Efanele Ilandelwe

Ingcamango yokuba urhulumente umele alandele imithetho esesikweni aze amisele imithetho xa ehlutha umntu amalungelo akhe ayizange ivele ePhiladelphia.

IMagna Carta Nesithembiso Somgwebo Osemthethweni

Ezona zibhengezo zidumileyo zangaphambili zenkqubo efunekayo zibonakala kwiMagna Carta ka1215. Isahluko 39 saloo mgaqo-siseko savakalisa: “ Akukho mntu okhululekileyo uza kubanjwa okanye ahluthwe amalungelo akhe okanye izinto zakhe, okanye abhangiswe okanye abhaliswe, okanye abhangiswe, okanye angabikho ngokomthetho wakhe nayiphi na enye indlela, okanye asiyi kuqhubeke sinyanzeleka, okanye sithumele abanye ukuba benze njalo, ngaphandle kokuba ngomthetho osemthethweni wokulinganisa okanye umthetho welizwe. “ Le &rto Conque; i-gactrand; rhoqo i-&quo; inkqubo yomthetho ye “ umgaqo-mthetho womnakekelo; kamva iguqulelwe njengendlela yomthetho wesingesingesingesiXedemmastdash. Ibinzana le &cququ; i-cons produratives produratives, kunye nomthetho womthetho-mthetho-siseko wangaphambili.

Umthetho Oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi Namaxwebhu Amathanga

Emva kweMagna Carta, amaxwebhu asemthethweni alandelayo angokwasemthethweni esiNgesi aqinisa ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo. Isicelo soMgaqo-maNgesi weSikolo samaNgesi samaLungelo salwalela isohlwayo sobabini ngaphandle kwegunya elisemthethweni. Xa amaqela amaNgesi azinza eMntla Merika, ayenale migaqo kunye nawo. Iirejistamente kunye nemithetho-siseko yombuso yamandulo yadla ngokuquka i “ umthetho welizwe i” imiqathango. Umzekelo, iMassachusetts Body of Liberty (1641) i-o; i-641 ibone ukuba i-omfonos okanye i-marminos iza kususwa i-&hiplip; kodwa ngomthetho othile weColiny.”

Eli lifa lenza ifumrhu laphembelela ngqo iFramers ngowe-1787. Ngeli xesha umGaqo-siseko wokuqala wawuqulathe kuphela iziqinisekiso ezimbalwa, iSimemezelo seFind 5 — sagunyaziswa ngo1791 njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo — ngokuphandle yalela urhulumente wesizwe ukuba angohluli nawuphi na umntu we “ ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. ” Ngexesha eli thuba, eli binzana laqondwa njengesiqinisekiso somthetho: urhulumente wayemele alandele iinkqubo ezimiselwe ngokwemithetho phambi kokuba ohlwaye umntu. Kodwa intsingiselo yayo yayiza kwandiswa ngokuphawulekayo emva kwemfazwe yeCandelo.

ISiqinisekiso soMgaqo-siseko: IziHlayiso-nkqubo zesihlanu nezeshumi elinesine

UmGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. uqulethe amabinzana amabini afunekayo, ngalinye linomlinganiselo owahlukileyo kodwa linesiseko esinye.

IsiHlomelo Sesihlanu Norhulumente Womanyano

IsiHlaliso sesihlanu, esisebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela, sichaza ngokwenxenye enxulumeneyo: “ akukho mntu uza kuba yi-&helpip; ukuhluthwa kobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho i-&hillepip;.” eli binzana lithintela ngqo iBhunga kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente. KwiRiphabliki yokuqala, kwakunqabile ukuba lihlawulwe, kodwa emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya labasebenzi babe sisixhobo esinamandla sokucel ’ umngeni.

IsiHlanzi Seshumi Eline NesiHlayisho NesiRhulumente

Ukubekwa kwemiqathango yeSigqibo seshumi elinesine soLawulo lweMimiselo yeMigaqo-nkqubo ngo1868 kwaphawulwa incopho yokutshintsha. Icandelo 1 linikela: “ i&helpip; okanye nawuphi na uMbuso uza kuhluba nabani na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. ” eli binzana lasebenzisa imfuneko efanayo esisiseko yokungagwebi urhulumente. Abaqululeki bezo komiti babenenjongo yokukhusela abantu ababekhe bangamakhoboka olwaphulo-mthetho kwilizwe i&mdashma; ukuquka inkululeko yokuthetha, ukuphatha ii-ankile, nokokubambanga, nokokuba inkundla elungileyo isebenzisa le migaqo ye-Gademi; ukugweba kwe-Genethscrist.

Kunye, iziHlanziso zesihlanu nezeshumi elinesine zidala umanyano, kwilizwe lonke isiqinisekiso sokuba oorhulumente kumgangatho ngamnye kufuneka benze ngokufanelekileyo xa behlutha umntu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Umbuzo obalulekileyo, kakade, yiyo leyo i &lquo; fair ” ithetha ukusetyenziswa kwayo. Lo mbuzo uvelise iimfundiso ezimbini ezahlukileyo: inkqubo efunekayo nenkqubo ephantsi.

Inkqubo Elindelekileyo: Yiyiphi Inkqubo Elindelekileyo?

Inkqubo efunekayo yenkcazelo inxulumene ne ii-motets apho urhulumente asebenza khona. Ibuza: Phambi kokuba urhulumente athabathe umntu i’ uthabatha ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, luhlobo luni lwesaziso, ukuva, kunye nezinye izikhuseli zeprocedtura? Impendulo asiloxesha elinye elifanelekileyo-zonke; ixhomekeke kumongo.

Uvavanyo lweMathews v. Eldridge Ukulinganisa

Isakhiwo sangoku sovavanyo lweprocedry inkqubo efunekayo yasekwa kunyaka ka 1976 Mathews v. Elditridge (424 U.S. 319). INkundla yachaza uvavanyo oluziinxenye ezintathu olusetyenziswa ziinkundla namhlanje: (1) inzala yabucala echaphazelekayo yisenzo sikarhulumente; (2) ubungozi bokuncitshiswa kwempazamo phantsi kwemigaqo ekhoyo kunye nexabiso elilindelekileyo lemiqathangongezelelweyo; kunye (3) nenzala karhulumente ’ kuquka inxalenye yemiqathango yemiqathango yolawulo equka imiqathango yeminye imicimbi.

Ngokomzekelo, Goldberg v. Kelly (70]), iNkundla yathi phambi kokuphelisa iinzuzo zentlalo, urhulumente kufuneka anikezele ukuva okucacileyo kwangaphambili kuba umamkeli ’ unomdla wabucala kwimo yesiqhelo wawuphezulu kakhulu, kwaye umngcipheko wempazamo ngaphandle kokuva wawubalulekile. Ngokuphikisanayo, kumathes [ ngokwayo, iNkuwiso iNkundla yagweba ukuba inzuzo yokukhubazeka kwezentlalo iphele ngaphandle kokuva okupheleleyo ngenxa yokuba inzala yangachananga nenkqubo yolawulo yayisele inciphile.

Iinkalo Zokubonakalisa Ubulungisa

Ngoxa uvavanyo lweMathews lubhetyebhetye, ezinye izikhuseli zezithethe zisoloko zifuneka xa urhulumente ehlutha umntu inkululeko okanye umdla wempahla:

  • Inqaku lomntu kufuneka afumane isaziso esifike ngexesha kunye nesesoneleyo sesenzo esicetyiweyo, kuquka isiseko esiyinyaniso kunye negunya elingokwasemthethweni.
  • [[UMTL: 0] I-Opportunit ezakuviwa: Umntu kufuneka abe nethuba lokunika ubungqina, ameme amangqina, kwaye aphikisane ngemeko yabo phambi komenzi wesigqibo sobundilele.
  • I-Impartial Tribunal: Umenzi wesigqibo makangabi namkhethe okanye umdla wobuqu kwisiphumo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ilungelo kwiSicelo: Kwimeko ezininzi, ingakumbi imicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho, urhulumente kufuneka anikeze igqwetha ukuba umntu akakwazi ukulithenga.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ekunene ukuya Kujongelwana noMnqamlezo: Umntu makakwazi ukuvavanya ubungqina obuchaseneyo namangqina.
  • Umthetho wezizathu: Umenzi-sigqibo makachaze isiseko esiyinyaniso nesisemthethweni sesigqibo.

Inkqubo Engagqibekanga Efunekayo: Ukukhusela Amalungelo Asisiseko

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko yeyokuphikisana kakhulu. Ithi amalungelo athile abaluleke kakhulu kangangokuba urhulumente akanakuwaphazamisa konke konke, nokuba iinkqubo zinjani na. UmGaqo-siseko awuwadweli ngokucacileyo la malungelo; endaweni yoko, iinkundla kufuneka zigqibe enoba umthetho ocetyiweyo kufuneka uphule i &lquo; ulungelelaniso lwenkululeko ” okanye usekelwe ngokunzulu kuhlanga i’ imbali nezithethe.

Imvelaphi Yenkqubo Engagqibekanga

Imbewu yenkqubo encinci efunekayo yatyalwa ngenkulungwane ye-19 xa iNkundla yaqalisa ukusebenzisa igalelo elifanelekileyo lokubetha imimiselo yezoqoqosho eyaphula umthetho we- &lquo;liberty wesivumelwano. ” Ku Lochner v. INew York [190] [1905], iNkundla yayenza buthathaka umthetho wezwe obeka umthetho ababhaki abachazi ’ iiyure zokusebenza, iphikisa ukuba yaphula inkqubo efunekayo kwisivumelwano esikhululekileyo. Eli xesha, elaziwa njengexesha leLochner, lagxekwa ngokuba likhulu ngenxa yokuhlasela kwejaji ze yaza yashiywa ekupheleni koo 1930.

Phakathi kwinkulungwane yama-20, inkqubo encinci efunekayo yavuselelwa kumongo owahlukileyo: ukuzilawula buqu kunye yimfihlo. Griswold v.Connecticut (65), iNkundla yawisa umthetho othintela ukuthintela ukuthintela ukukhawula inzala yezibini ezitshatileyo, ifumana ilungelo elisemthethweni kwimfihlo yomtshato. Nangona uluvo luxhomekeke kwi- &lquo;penbras ” kaBill of Rights, kamva imiba yalo igunyazisa ngokuqinileyo kwinkqubo efanelekileyo.

Oonobumba Benkqubela Abangaphantsi

Ubukhulu becala umlinganiselo wendlela efunekayo yokuzilawula uye wachazwa ngesigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo ngomtshato, intsapho nangamalungelo omzimba.

  • ROE v. INkundla yathi ibhinqa '&squo] ikholelwa ukuba ibhinqa lenza ukukhulelwa liyinkululeko engundoqo ekhuselwe yinkqubo encinci ekhuselekileyo, ephantsi kokubekwa umda njengoko ukukhulelwa kuqhubeka. [iiiNkulawula] i-Rogro [ ibekwe kwinkqubo eqingqiweyo amaDobss v. Jackson &&quo; AS Health Organization [[FLT:]] [202], eyayibambe oko kukhunjulwa kukuqhomfayo okunganziswayo nokungakhuselwanga yinkqubo engundoqo ye-manclans; i-'effectedvos protoo'ements.
  • [[NTLA:0]Lawrence v. Texas (2003): INkundla yachitha imithetho ephazamisa ihambo esondeleyo enxulumeneyo, ivakalisa ukuba inkululeko ekhuselwe yinkqubo efunekayo ibandakanya ilungelo labantu abadala ukubandakanyeka kwisenzo sabucala sesondo.
  • [[NTLT:0]bergefell v. Hodges (2015) INkundla yakholelwa ukuba inkqubo efunekayo yentetho iqinisekisa izibini ezinelungelo lokutshata, ukufumana ukuba umtshato lilungelo elingundoqo kwilungelo elibalulekileyo kwi-console nesidima.
  • [[NTLT: 0] Shashington v. Glucksberg (1997): Inkundla yalukhaba ityala elincinci elifunekayo kwinkqubo efunekayo kulawulo lokuvalwa koncedo lokuzibulala, isebenzisa uvavanyo olumxinwa olufuna ilungelo lokuba yi &lquo; ngokunzulu imvelaphi nesithethe. &quto

Umahluko phakathi kwamatyala afana Obergefell [ii-asethi] kunye Glucksberg [ [ukuphinda-phinda]] (i-phinda) ubonakalisa ingxoxo eqhubekayo ngendawo iinkundla ezimele ziwaphawule ngayo amalungelo angundoqo. Abaxhasi ngokubanzi bakhuthaza ukusondela kwembali, ngexa bevumela ukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko.

Uphawu lwetyala leNkundla ePhakamileyo elaguqula inkqubo elindelekileyo

Ngaphezu kwala matyala sele ekhankanywe, ezinye izigqibo ezininzi zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ziye zawuphembelela ngokunzulu umthetho ofanelekileyo.

  • Mira v. Arizona (1966: INkundla yabambelela ekubeni uLandlo-Olungiso lwesihlanu ’ uquo; uqulu-luvo lohlanga olufuna amapolisa ukuba azise abakrokrele ngelungelo labo lokuhlala bethulile nokuba negqwetha elikhoyo ngexesha loncinwano logunya. Le ntambo ye-procedmical ngoku idumile njenge “Miranda.&quo;
  • HAmdi v. Rumsfeld (2004): kumongo wemfazwe ye- Terrorch, iNkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ummi wase-U.S. ovalelwe njengotshaba unelungelo lomthetho-siseko kwinkqubo efanelekileyo, kuquka isaziso sesiseko senyaniso sokuvalelwa nokufumana ithuba elibalulekileyo lokukhuphisana nayo phambi kwesigqibo sobundilele.
  • [[NTLT:0] Timbs v. Indiana (2029): INkundla yasebenzisa intlawulo egqithisileyo yengxelo yeSendh Amendments kwimimandla ngenkqubo ye 1450 Demplete ’ ilawula ukuba ilahleko yemiba imele ingancitshiswa ngokunzulu.

Ubalo: Inkqubo elindelekileyo ngeNtlanganiso yama-21

Njengoko ibutho labantu litshintsha, yenza okufanayo nakubugcisa bale mihla, ukungalingani kwezoqoqosho, nezenzo ezintsha zikarhulumente ziphakamisa imibuzo encinane ngoko kufunwa bubulungisa.

Inkqubo elindeleke ngamanani kunye nobuxhakaxhaka

Ukwanda kobugcisa bamanani kuye kwadala imida emitsha ukwenzela inkqubo efanelekileyo. Ukujongana norhulumente, ukuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi, kunye nokwenza izigqibo ze-algorithm kungachaphazela abantu ngabanye i-’ inkululeko kunye nezilangazelelo zempahla ngaphandle kwemiqathango yesithethe.

  • Isigqibo se-Algalithmic- Ukwenza: amasebe karhulumente asebenzisa ngokuqhubekayo iinkqubo ezizenzekelayo ukumisela ubuchule bokusebenzisa iinzuzo, ukucwangcisa ii-bheyile, okanye ukuxela kwangaphambili ukubuyiselwa kobuphini. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba i-Pijing “ ibhokisi emnyama ” i-algorithms ziyabakhanyela abantu ithuba lokuqonda okanye ukuvavanya isiseko seendlela ezingalunganga, ezinokusonakalisa inkqubo efunekayo. Ezinye iinkundla ziqalile ukufuna ukukhanyisa nokucacisa kwiinkqubo ezinjalo.
  • Imfihlo: ISiphendulo sesine &squo; ukhuseleko ekuphengululweni okungekho ngqiqweni luhlaziywe ngamatyala afana Amakharpeent v. United States (2018), ekholelwa ukuba urhulumente ufuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana ugcino-lwazi lwendawo ye-cellphone. Olu khuselo lwemfihlo ludityaniswe ngenkqubo efunekayo, njengoko beqinisekisa ukuba abantu abangehlelwanga phantsi kwemvume yomthetho.
  • Ku-Line Speech kunye nePlatform Modevince: Ngeli xesha uHlaziyo lokuqala lulawula imiqathango emininzi karhulumente ekuthetheni, imibuzo efunekayo iphakama xa urhulumente ngokwakhe ethintela abemi ekufikeleleni uwonke-wonke okanye kwiingxelo zezentlalo-ntle ezisetyenziselwa iinjongo ezisemthethweni. Iinkundla ziyangqubana nendlela yokuqinisekisa iinkqubo ezisesikweni xa amagosa karhulumente ebandakanyeka kunxibelelwano kwi-intanethi.

Isixokelelwano esilindelekileyo kuMfuduko noKhuseleko lweSizwe

Urhulumente unegunya eliphangaleleyo ngokufuduka, kodwa iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko ibambelele kwelokuba abangenazingcamlo abakhoyo ngokoqobo eUnited States banelungelo lenkqubo efanelekileyo. Zadvydas v. Davis [2001], iNkundla ibekelwe umda ekuvalelweni ngokungenasiphelo kwabaphambukeli abagxothiweyo, ifuna ukuba ukuvalelwa kubotshwe kwithuba lokwenene lokususwa. “ inkqubo ye-STARDIR ifuna ukuba umntu anikwe isaziso esinentsingiselo kunye nokuphula-mthetho olungileyo phambi kokuba ahluthwe inkululeko, i-” Justice Brey Breyer yaphawula.

Kwimeko zokhuseleko lwesizwe, uxinezeleko phakathi kokhuseleko nenkululeko luhlala lukhalisile. Ukuvalelwa eGuantanamo Bay kwabangela uthotho lwezigqibo eziqinisekisa ukuba ababanjwa i’ inkqubela-phambili yamalungelo e-— kuquka i-habeas corpus — phantsi komGaqo-siseko. Boumediene v. Bush [2008]) wakholelwa ukuba iSuspension Claus usebenza kumabanjwa abanjwe eGuantamo, i-entititle ukuba bavavanye ukuva ityala yabo kwinkundla yorhulumente.

Ubulungisa Bobuhlanga Nobezoqoqosho

Inkqubo elindelekileyo ibisoloko idityaniswe nokusesikweni kobuhlanga. ISindululo seshumi elinesine saba yimpendulo kwimithetho yemfazwe emnyama yasemva kweKivil. Namhlanje, abameli bakhomba kwimithetho engekho mthethweni kwinkqubo yobulungisa njengenkqubo yokwaphula umthetho.

  • Utshintsho: Uqheliso lokucwangcisa ibheyile yemali lungaphumelela ekuvaleni abamangalelwa abangamahlwempu phambi kokuvavanywa nje ngenxa yokuba bengenakukwazi ukuhlawula. Ezinye iinkundla zibambelele ekubeni oku kuphulukezela ukhuseleko olulinganayo kunye nenkqubo efunekayo. O’ Donnell v. Harris County [2029]), inkundla yephondo eyayalela uTexas &squo; iphondo elikhulu ukuqinisekisa inkqubo eqwalasela inkqubo ejonge ukuvalelwa kwe-’ ukukwazi ukuhlawula phambi kokuba igqitywe.
  • [[NTLT: 0] Plea Barganing kunye nelungelo lokunika Icebiso: Ngaphezu kwama-90 ekhulwini amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho aconjululwe ngokucetywa. Inkqubo elindelekileyo ifuna ukuba izicelo zibenolwazi, zokuzithandela, kwaye zibenolwazi. Missouri v. Frye[ [20], iNkundla ibambelele kwisigqibo sokuba ukukhusela kungumsebenzi wokunxibelelana ngokusemthethweni nesibongozo, kwaye uncedo olungasebenziyo kwisigaba seSithandathu sokuPhinda isiHlaziseli, oluququlukwayo ngokwenkqubo efanelekileyo.
  • Imfundiso yokhuseleko olufanelekileyo lwamagosa karhulumente kwityala labemi ngaphandle kokuba aphule i-” umthetho osungulwe ngokucacileyo. Abahlalutyi bakuthi phantse kungabi nakwenzeka ukuba amagosa amapolisa aphendulwe ngokuphulwa komthetho-siseko, ngaloo ndlela acuthe iziphumo zokunqanda ukukhusela inkqubo efanelekileyo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iphinde yayiphinda yayichasa le mfundiso kwiminyaka yakutshanje kodwa ayikhange iyiphelise.

Isixokelelwano esilindelekileyo kumaXesha exesha likaxakeka: COVID-19 kunye nezindlu

Isifo se-COVID-19 esivavanywe ngokwesiqhelo esifanelekileyo. Iinkqubo zokugoma ezinyanzelekileyo, iinkqubo zokugoma, nemiqathango yeembutho edityanisiweyo yaphakamisa imibuzo malunga nesaziso, ukuva, kunye nobungakanani benkqubo efunekayo encinci. Alabama Association of Realtors v. ISebe leMibutho yezempilo kunye neMinyango yoLuntu [201], iNkubethwa kweCDC’ i-rostom, ibambe ukuba iBhunga lingagunyazi ukuba i-fakelo olulukileyo lokufaka ukungeniswa kwempahla kwimfuno yempahla. Isigqibo sagxininisa ukuba kwangaxesha lobugrafu, urhulumente akanakusungula imidalo ecacileyo ngaphandle kogunyaziso olucacileyo.

Isiphelo

Iziseko zomgaqo-siseko zenkqubo efunekayo zisabalulekile namhlanje njengokuba zazinjalo ngo-1789. Ukuba isetyenziswe ngovavanyo olunzima lokulinganisela inkqubo efunekayo okanye umhlaba ophikiswayo wenkqubo efunekayo, isithembiso esingundoqo siyafana: akukho mntu uza kukhutshwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngurhulumente ngesenzo esingekho ngqiqweni okanye esingalunganga. INkundla ePhakamileyo i’ ukucaciswa kweso sithembiso kuvela ngokuphawulekayo — ukukhusela inkululeko yezoqoqosho yokukhusela izigqibo zobuqu zobuqu — kwaye kuza kuqhubeka kuguquka njengobugcisa obutsha neenguqulo lwentlalo. Ukuqonda inkqubo efuneka asiko nje ukuqheliswa kwemfundo; kubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uhlala ekwityala kubantu. Uhlazinzo oluninzi, ukukhangela okuthe keenkcukacha, [FLT] [5][5]