UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States umela umthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, ulungiselela ukwakhiwa kwezakhiwo zolawulo lwamaMelika ngeli xesha uchaza imida yegunya likarhulumente phezu komntu ngamnye. Kubafundisi-mfundo, abafundi, kunye nabemi ngokufanayo, ukuqonda esi siseko somGaqo-siseko kubalulekile kungekuphela nje ekuqondeni idemokhrasi yaseMerika kodwa kwanangenxa yamalungelo emali akhusela inkululeko yobuqu. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa imvelaphi yembali, ukukhuselwa kwesiseko solawulo lwezomthetho, kunye nokusikelwa kwemiqathango esebenzisekayo kwamalungelo abantu phantsi komGaqo-siseko, ukunikela ukhokelo olubanzi olunokusetyenziswa kwizicwangciso zemfundo yemfundo yezentlalo.

Imeko

Indlela eya kuMgaqo-siseko yaqala ngeZihloko zoMgaqo-siseko, isivumelwano esikhululekileyo phakathi kwamazwana alishumi elinesithathu angaphambili angqineka engafanelekanga ukuphatha imali, ezorhwebo, kunye nokuzikhusela. Phakathi konyaka ka-1780, ukungaguquguquki kwezoqoqosho, imiqobo yezorhwebo, kunye neziganeko ezifana neNguquko kaShays zabethelela imfuneko yokuba negunya elisemgangathweni elomeleleyo ngakumbi. Ekuphenduleni kwazo, abathunywa bahlanganisana ePhiladelphia ngowe-1787 kwiNgqungquthela yezo yezomGaqo-siseko, esetyenzwe ngokuphinda imisele amaGatya kodwa ekugqibeleni besenza uxwebhu olutsha olulawulayo.

Abaxhasi basebenzisa kakhulu intanda-bulumko yokukhanyiselwa. Ingcamango kaJohn Locke yamalungelo endalo `ubomi, inkululeko, nempahla'. Yabonisa ulungiso lokuziphatha korhulumente olinganiselweyo, ngelixa ingcamango kaMontesquieu yamagunya inikela iplani yokwahlula igunya phakathi kwemithetho, isebe elilawulayo, neyamasebe egwebi. UJames Madison, ngokufuthi ubizwa ngokuba ngu “uYise woMgaqo-siseko,” uxanduva phakathi [[FLT: 0] u-Federalist No. [5 [indlela] ukuba “imfuno mayicelwelwe ulwahlulo, i-gqweqwele, i-caral, "iiiiphere," kunye namasebe okulawula ukunqanda amasebe ahlukeneyo ekulawuleni abanye. Ezi zingqondweni zobulumko zibumba iinjongo zokukhusela amalungelo abantu ngabanye (iiiiiie) kwimisebenzi eyasekhohlo kodwa ke inamandla kakhulu ukuba zivelwe ukuba ziphumelele.

Inkqubo yokwandiswa kwemiqathango ngokwayo yadala impikiswano enzima. Abachasi-Federali babefuna ukhuseleko olucacileyo kubantu, besoyika urhulumente omtsha wezwe ukuba babenobuzwilakhe. Ugxininiso lwabo lwakhokelela kwisithembiso seBhili yamaLungelo, . Ishumi lokuqala lokulungisa, "apho kwamkelwa khona umGaqo-siseko. Oku kulalanisa kwaqinisekisa ukuhlaziywa kwaye kwamisela iqonga le ndalekokelo eqhubekayo yokhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo

IBhili yamaLungelo yabekwa ngowe - 1791, iseyeyona ngxelo ingqalileyo yenkululeko yomntu ngamnye.

  • IsiHlanzi soMgqibo sokuqala : IBhunga alingenze mthetho ngokwazisa ukusekwa konqulo, okanye ukunqanda ukusetyenziswa kwalo ngokukhululekileyo; okanye ukuvalela inkululeko yokuthetha, ushicilelo, ilungelo lokuhlanganisana ngoxolo, okanye ukucela urhulumente ukuba alungise izikhalazo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Uhlaziyo oluqulunqweyo: Ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo alizukuphazamisana.
  • IsiHlalisi-sombululo esiThinliweyo: Akukho joni linokufakwa nakweyiphi na indlu ngaphandle kwemvume yomnini ngexesha loxolo, okanye ngexesha lemfazwe kodwa ngendlela emiselwe ngumthetho.
  • [[UMGAQO-MALI: 0] UHlaliso lweNkqutyana: Abantu baya kukhuseleka kubantu babo, izindlu, amaphepha, kunye neziphumo ezichasene nokuphanda okungaqiqiyo nokuxhuzula; akukho gunya lizakukhutshwa ngaphandle kwesizathu esilindelekileyo.
  • ISichibiyelo seNtloko yeFifith: Ityala elizukileyo labachopheli-tyala elifunekayo kwikomkhulu okanye kwityala elidume kakubi; ukukhusela kwingozi ephindwe kabini kunye nokuzikhusela; isiqinisekiso senkqubo efunekayo; impahla yabucala ayinakuthatyathwa ukuze isetyenziswe nguwonke wonke ngaphandle kwentlawulo nje kuphela.
  • IsiHlalisi seMimiselo yeSixhwele: Ummangalelwa uza kufumana ityala elikhawulezileyo nelinobudlelane liququzelelwa liqumrhu labachopheli-mthetho abangakhethiyo, axelelwe ngemo yetyala, amangqina ajongene nalo, kwaye abe noncedo lwesiluleko.
  • Ukuhlaziywa koMphetho-mva kweSiphengululo : Ekunene ukuvavanywa ngabachopheli-tyala kwiimeko zamakhaya apho ixabiso kwimpikiswano lingaphaya kwee-R2.00.
  • [[UMTL: 0] UHlaliso lweNkqutyana : Ibheyile egqithisileyo, intlawulo egqithisileyo, kunye nesohlwayo esikhohlakeleyo nesingaqhelekanga asivumelekanga.
  • UHlaliso lweNtsimbi: Uludwe lwamalungelo athile aluzukuthathwa njengokhanyelwa okanye ucalulo olugcinwe ngabantu.
  • IsiHlalisi-Mpanzi soMgaqo-siseko : Amandla awanikwanga iUnited States ngumGaqo-siseko, okanye awalelwe kumazwe, agcinelwe kumazwana ngokulandelelanayo, okanye kubantu.

IBhili yamaLungelo ekuqaleni yasebenza kurhulumente wesizwe kuphela. Le mfundiso yade yadityaniswa kuMphetho-mvakalo weshumi elinesine ngo1868(*) kunye neNkundla Ephakamileyo uClaus (eyenziwe yi-Uthotho) yaqalisa “ukuqinisekisa” iBhili-Bhili yamaLungelo ngokukhusela urhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni kwinkqubo eyaziwa ngokuba kukuqulunqa okukhethiweyo. Le mfundiso iye yawandisa phantse onke amalungelo angundoqo kumgangatho ngamnye karhulumente, yenza iBhili-Rhosa yamaLungelo ngokwenene angokohlanga.

Ingcaciso kunye neNkqubo

Ulwimi lomGaqo-siseko lusoloko lubanzi kwaye lungekho ngqiqweni, lufuna ukutolikwa kwesigwebo ukuze kufunyanwe intsingiselo yalo ngokwemeko ethile. Amandla eNkundla ePhakamileyo okuhlola isigwebo, "igunya lokuwisa imithetho echasene nomGaqo-siseko"() ) yamiselwa kwi- burybury v. Madison [1803]). Ukususela ngoko, iNkukhundla ikhuphe amakhulu ezigqibo ezichaza imida yamalungelo omntu ngamnye.

Enye yezona ndawo zitshintshayo zokutolika komgaqo-siseko ibhekiselele kuMphetho-siseko Wokuqala. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla iye yathi inkululeko yokuthetha ikhusela kungekuphela nje intetho yezopolitiko kodwa ikwayintetho yokomfuziselo (umz., iflegi etshayo kwi [[FLT: 0]] Testas v. Johnson[), 1989, intetho yentengiso (umz., ukubhengeza [ngendlela ekhethekileyo:] iGeneral Gamplas & gemarkers v. IKhomishini kawonke yeNkonzo karhulumente , 1980], kwaye nentiyo, ngaphandle kokuba ikhuthaza izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezisondeleyo ([FLT: 4,] Branburg. v[FLT], ingqiqo yonyakanyakanyakanyaka-1969]) ikhuselwe yintevo, nangona ithe yanda kakhulu, i-ethe yane, i-ethoba i-eaft, i-ocky, i-ognog.

Inkululeko yonqulo phantsi koMphetho-Mgangatho weFirst Free Express Claus ikwayindawo yedabi. I-Employment Division v. Smith (1990), iNkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ukungathathi cala-cala-cala, okusetyenziswayo, kusenokuzithwalisa iinkonzo zonqulo ngaphandle kokwaphula umGaqo-siseko, isigqibo ekwathi iBhungani lijijekezwe ngokungentla kuMthetho wenkululeko yokwahlukana kwenkolo (1993). I-Sivume soburhulumente esilela ukuvunywa konqulo, siye saguqula iimpikiswano ezikoleni zesikolo ([[FLT.2] Engelgel v.[FLD:3], 1962, kunye nokuboniswa kweMithetho yeMithetho ka-10 kwimpahla kawonke wonke.

Ilungelo lokuphatha iingalo, umbandela wempikiswano ode, wafumana eyona nkcazelo yayo ibalulekileyo kwi idigrity of Columbia v. Heller (2008), apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yamkela ilungelo lomntu ngamnye lokuba nesixhobo sompu sokuzilawula ngaphakathi ekhaya. Ezi zigqibo ziye zabangela ukuba umgangatho wolawulo lwemipu uqhubekeke. [McDonald v. Chicago (2010])

Amalungelo olwaphulo-mthetho aye alolongwa kakhulu yiNkundla. Izilumkiso zeMiranda, ezifuna amapolisa ukuba azise ilungelo lawo lokuhlala ethule nakumacebiso, zagunyaziswa ku imanda v. Arizona [196]. Umthetho wokuzikhulula, ogcina iintambo, ukusetyenziswa kobungqina obufunyenwe ngokuchasene noMphetho-Mpanzi wesi-5, wasetyenziswa kumazwe . [[[FLT:]] Mapp v.[[FLT] [196]] [196]]). Kwangoku ke, umthetho osekunene kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho wandiswe kubo bonke abakhokeli-mthetho [FLT:] v.[FLT]

Kwindawo yemfihlo, iNkundla iye yakhupha ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuzilawula ukusuka ku- “penumbras” yezilungiso eziliqela. Eli lungelo lisekelwe Griswold v.Connecticut[ (1965) (ukuvala ukuvalwa kokuthintela ukuthintela), Rhoev. [[FLT][FLT][[FLT]] [713]) [10773]) (ukwamkela amalungelo okuqhomfa komphumo phantsi kweMxokezo we 1450)) kunye [neenkqubo eqhubekayo yomthetho kaClauscscreas], [[FLT].[ft:5] (iijingthream) (ijingthreaaaase) (iiimele izigwegwegwegwegwegwegwegwegwegwegwegwegwegwe).)

Ityala eliyintloko leNkundla ePhakamileyo

  • Marbury v. Madison (103) – uhlolo lwezahlulelo.
  • Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) – ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke olungekho semthethweni.
  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961) – Umthetho weExclussion.
  • [[UMTL:0] Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) – ekunene ukuya kucebisa abamangalelwa abagwetyiweyo.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966) – Amapolisa kufuneka azise abarhanelwa ngamalungelo.
  • ker v. Des Moines Independent School School (11969) – intetho yabafundi ikhuselwe ngaphandle kokuba iphazamisa isikolo.
  • [[NTL:0] Roe v. Ukukhupha [[1] [1973] – ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko lokuqhomfa (elilawulwa [ngu]] Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization[ ngo-2022, ishiya ummiselo wokuqhomfa kumazwe).
  • Icandelo leColumbia v. Heller (2008) – umntu ngamnye unelungelo lokuthwala izixhobo ukuze azifakele ngokwakhe.
  • [[NTL: 0] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – umtshato ofanayo wobunyani oqwalaselwe njengelungelo lomGaqo-siseko.

Ukutshintsha indlela ekhiwe ngayo iNkundla Ephakamileyo, isimo sengqondo sasekuhlaleni, nemingeni emitsha engokwasemthethweni isoloko itshintsha imida yamalungelo omntu ngamnye, isenza umthetho womGaqo - siseko ube ngumsebenzi onamandla.

Imilinganiselo Yamalungelo

Akukho lungelo lomGaqo-siseko lipheleleyo. Urhulumente angawalawula amalungelo xa ukwenjenjalo kunika umdla onyanzelisayo kuwonke-wonke, ukuba lo mthetho uthe walungiswa ngokumngcipheko kwaye awuwuthwali umthwalo ongafanelekanga umzimbo wamalungelo.

Intetho yenkululeko ingathintelwa “ngexesha, indawo, nangendlela” imimiselo equlathweyo-neutral kwaye ishiye amanye amajelo okuchaza. Umzekelo, isixeko singafuna imvume yeentlanganiso ezinkulu kwipakethi zikawonke-wonke zokhuseleko lwezithuthi. Ukuchaphazeleka kogonyamelo, ukunyelisa, ubugqwirha, kunye “ukulwa amagama” ngamaqela entetho angakhuselwanga yiSinyusi Sokuqala ( Icaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 1942).

Ilungelo lokuphatha iingalo livumela imimiselo esengqiqweni, enjengeehlolo zesiqalo, imiqathango yokuba nento ekhoyo ngabahlali okanye abagula ngengqondo, kunye nemiqathango yokuthwala imipu kwiindawo ezichukumileyo njengezikolo kunye nezakhiwo zikarhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yenza kwacaca ukuba ilungelo lesibini loMphengululo “elingenasiphelo” ([[[FLT:]]] Heller []).

Ukhuseleko lwesiHlaliso seNkundla ngokuchasene nokuphanda okungekho ngqiqweni kuxhomekeke kwiimeko ezingafaniyo ezifana nezizathu ezilindelekileyo, kodwa kwakhona kwiimeko ezicacileyo, ukukhangela, kunye “nembono yophando-magama”. INkundla ikwagunyazise“imfuno ezikhethekileyo” ngaphandle kovavanyo lweziyobisi zabasebenzi abathile nobafundi ababandakanyekileyo kwimisebenzi yasemva kwesikolo.

ukhuseleko lohlanga lungathethelela uthintelo olungenakuthintelwa. Ngexesha lemfazwe okanye kujongwana nesoyikiso sabagrogrisi esithembekileyo, urhulumente anganyanzela iinkqubo zokhangelo, ukuvalelwa, okanye imiqathango yokuhamba, nangona ezi zenzo zisemele ziwudlulise umGaqo-siseko. Uxanduva phakathi kokhuseleko nenkululeko luye lwahlolwa kwiimeko ezifana Koritatsu. United States (1944), eyaxhasa ukudibana kweMelika nemfazwe yehlabathi II, isigqibo esigwetyiswe ngempumelelo.

Imiqathango eyongezelelekileyo ivela kwi-Fonententh’s Fimence Provice Istivice elinganayo ye-Claus , ethintela imithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho kodwa ivumela ucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, ubufana, okanye ezinye iindidi kuphela ukuba zanelisa imigangatho eyahlukeneyo yovavanyo lwezekomiti olufuna ulwahlulo, ububanzi bobufana, kunye nesiseko soninzi lwemimiselo yezoqoqosho.

Indima Yemfundo

Ukuqonda amalungelo omGaqo-siseko akuyonto nje efundiswayo; kodwa kuyimfuneko ukuba abe yindawo yobumi. Izikolo zinembopheleleko ekhethekileyo yokufundisa umGaqo-siseko kunye neBhili yamaLungelo, ukunceda abafundi baqonde indlela abakhuseleke ngayo kunye neembopheleleko abanazo.

Imfundo ephumelelayo yezentlalo ithatha ingongoma yokukhumbula ukubuyiselwa kwemeko. Ibandakanya ukuhlalutya amatyala aphawulekayo, ingxubusho evulekileyo yeengxoxo zamaxesha angoku, kunye nemisebenzi yezandla ebangela ukuba imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko iphile. Umzekelo, abafundi banokubandakanyeka kwiimvavanyo zobuxoki ezisekelwe kumatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo, baphikisana ngentsingiselo yesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga,” okanye balinganisa ukuva kwemithetho kwimibandela efana nenkululeko yokuthetha kwi-intanethi.

Ubuchule Bokufundisa Obusebenzisekayo

  • [[FLT: 0] Uhlaziyo lweCutha: Yabela abafundi ukuba bafunde baze baxubushe iimbono zenkundla Ephakamileyo, babhekise kwizibakala, umbuzo womthetho, ukuqiqa okuninzi, kunye neempikiswano eziphikisayo. Iziphumo ezifana ne Iproject ye-Oyez inikeza ushicilelo neenshwankathela.
  • Izicwangciso: Lungisa inkundla yetyala apho abafundi baphikisana ngetyala elithelekelelwayo elisekelwe kwiziganeko zangoku, okanye indibano yezomGaqo-siseko apho bacebisa khona baze baxoxe ngezilungiso ezintsha.
  • C iziganeko zangoku ezidityanisiweyo: Ngabafundi bazise amanqaku eendaba malunga neempikiswano eziqhubekayo zomgaqo-siseko ``````njengempikiswano yokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo kumaziko eendaba asekuhlaleni, imithetho yokulawula imipu, okanye amalungelo obuqu ngexesha lamanani' kwaye bawahlalutya ngolwimi olusemthethweni.
  • amava e-Precial : ukuhlela amatyelelo kwizindlu zenkundla, izitishi zamapolisa, okanye kwindlu yowiso-mthetho karhulumente ukubona indlela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko asebenza ngayo. Ukhenketho lwentengo ephakamileyo lukwakhona kwi-intanethi.
  • Imithombo yogcino-lwazi: Sebenzisa okubhaliweyo komGaqo-siseko, amaPhepha oMbutho, neentetho okanye iileta zembali ukunceda abafundi baqonde iinjongo zabafaki-faya kunye neengxoxo zabaqali.

Abaqeqeshi kufuneka bagxininise ukuba umGaqo-siseko luxwebhu oluphilayo olunokutyhilwa. Ukufundisa umxholo wokuqala kunye nezicelo zangoku kuxhobisa abafundi ukuba bacinge ngokungqongqo ngamalungelo neembopheleleko. Iintlangano ezinjenge ii-Cicops kunye [[FLT]] nezibonelelo zobuzwe [[FLT]] izibonelelo zogcino-lwazi zinika abafundi iprojekthi nempahla ezilungiselelwe ukusetyenziswa kweklasi.

Isiphelo

Isiseko somgaqo-siseko sokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye sisenzo esingokwembali nesiqhubekayo. Ukusukela kwiBhili yamaLungelo ukuya kuMphetho-Mgaqo weshumi elinesine, kwaye ukusuka eMarbury ukuya eObergefell, ibali lamalungelo aseMerika lelokukhula, ukudityaniswa, nokuhlaziywa, ngengxoxo yedemokhrasi kunye nenkcazelo egwebayo. Abafundisi abazisa eli bali kwizifundo zabo abafundisi nje imbali okanye umthetho; balungiselela abantu abaselula ukuba bafune amalungelo abo siqu baze bawahlonele amalungelo abanye.

Njengoko ilizwe lizama ukumelana neengxaki ezintsha ezikhoyo ngezantsi, iimvavanyo ezifihlakeleyo, ii-pixel, ukuqwalaselwa kobuso, ubukrelekrele obungeyomfuneko qha qha . Umzi oqonda ilifa lawo lomGaqo-siseko unelungelo elingcono lokuwulondoloza. Ngokukhuthaza ukuba ufunde nokubhala ezikolweni, sifaka imali ekunyamezeleni inkululeko ngokwayo.