Table of Contents

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, waseka isakhiwo sorhulumente wesizwe. Kodwa abaxhasi baqonda ukuba uxwebhu oluthe ngqo luya kwanele ukukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye ukutyhubela amaxesha atshintshileyo. Ngenkqubo yokulungisa eyacaciswa kwiGatya V, umGaqo-siseko uye wakhula ukuze ucombulule imibandela engundoqo yenkululeko, ukulingana, nokusesikweni. Ukupheliswa komGaqo-siseko kuye kwasebenza njengesithuthi sokuqala sokukhusela inkululeko yabemi, ukulungisa ukungalungisi okungokwembali, kunye nokwandisa isithembiso sedemokhrasi. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa eyona mithetho ibalulekileyo ebumbe inkululeko yabemi eMerika, ukusuka kwiBhili yamaLungelo ukuya kwingxoxo yale mihla yovotatho kunye nokulingana.

IBhili Yamalungelo: Isiseko Sokukhulula Umntu Ngamnye

Izilungiso zokuqala ezilishumi, ezazisaziwa njengeBhili yamaLungelo, zagunyaziswa ngoDisemba 15, 1791. Ukudalwa kwazo kwaba yimpendulo engqalileyo kwimicimbi echasene nomkhosi wemfazwe wemfazwe ephakathi. Abaninzi babesoyika ukuba urhulumente onamandla uzakuwanyathela amalungelo afunyenweyo kwiMvukelo. UJames Madison, ekuqaleni owayengaqiniseki ngokomthetho wamalungelo, waxhasa ukupheliswa kwemithetho yeQumrhu lokuqala. IBhili yamaLungelo isebenza ngokuyintloko kurhulumente wesizwe (i-(a) kamva intentelekelelo ebhalwe yimfundiso ye 144th Demend Amend Resigration, eyathi ngokuthe ngcelele yasebenzisa onke amalungiselelo karhulumente.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Ikhorime Eliyingcaciso Ekhululekileyo

IsiHlanzo sokuqala sikhusela iinkululeko ezintlanu ezisisiseko: unqulo, ukuthetha, ukucofa, indibano kunye nesibongozo. Sithintela iKhomishini ekumiseleni unqulo okanye ukuqhelisa ngenkululeko, kwaye siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuthetha, lokupapasha, ukuhlanganisa, nokufuna ulawulo lukarhulumente. Isalathisi seNkundla ePhakamileyo esinjenge Ulawulo lokuqala lweNew York Times Co. v. Sullivan [1964]) iseke ukhuseleko oluqinileyo lwentetho yezobupolitika, ngelixa [[FLT:]] i-CV [FLT].[5] [FLT] [5] unikezelo olupheleleyo lomthetho wezomthetho wezopolitiki oluqhelekileyo]. [iiiindawo yorhwebo]

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini: Ilungelo Lokuthwala Izixhobo

ISiminqi sesibini soLawulo sivakalisa oku: "Iinkundla ezilawulwa kakuhle zeMilitia, ekubeni iyimfuneko kukhuseleko loRhulumente olukhululekileyo, ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha Iizixhobo, alizukumonyuswa. Ukutolikwa kwayo kutshintshile ngexesha. Kwimbali yeMelika, iinkundla zixhasa ulawulo olubanzi kunye nemithetho yolawulo lwemipu yasekuhlaleni. Iinkcazelo zale mihla zomntu ngamnye zafumana ukuvelela [[FLT:] iGaza laseColupeanty. [2008], eyathi yaluphelisa uthintelo lwemipu yesandla eWashington, D.C., kunye [FLT] ne[FLD2] [f2].MDonald. City of Chicagot[FFFF:] [2010], eyasebenzisa ulawulo lwesibini lomthetho wolawulo lwezikompumenti], kunye nemithetho yeMiqatha yemithetho ejikelezayo.

Uhlaziyo Lwesithathu: Amajoni Alungelelanisiweyo

Nangona kunqabile ukubekwa phantsi, iSiHlanzi seSithathu soHlaziyo sikwalela ixesha loxolo lokubekwa kwekota kwamajoni kumakhaya abantu ngaphandle kwemvume yomnini. Oku kubangelwa zizikhalazo zobupolisa nxamnye noqheliselo lomkhosi waseBritani, kugxininisa ukuzinikela kwaBaseki ekulawuleni imikhosi ngasese kunye nokulawulwa kwabemi. Oku kusesona siphembelelo siphembelelayo kwiinkundla zikarhulumente, kodwa imigaqo yayo ivakala kwimibango yanamhlanje.

UMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Wesine: Ukukhusela Kwizinto Ezingekho Mthethweni Nezingekho Mthethweni

IsiHlamli seSine soMphengululo-Mphetho-mvallo-mval abagada ngokuchasene nokugxumeka koorhulumente ngokungekho mthethweni, izindlu, amaphepha, kunye neziphumo. Kufuneka kubangele ukuba kufuneke imvume kwaye ichaze ukuba imfuneko ifanele ibekwe. INkundla ePhakamileyo ikwandise ukhuseleko lwesine lokuzikhusela kwimiqathango yamanani, okungakumbi kwi Riley v. California [2014], eyayibambe ukuba amapolisa afune isiqinisekiso sokuphendla ngesel-cell ukuze abambe.

UHlaliso lweNtloko: Inkqubo efanelekileyo nokuzithethelela

IsiHlanziso sesihlanu siqulethe iindidi eziliqela zokhuseleko: ukumangalelwa okukhulu kwabachopheli-tyala abanzulu betyala, ukukhuselwa kwingozi ephindwe kabini, ukukhuselwa ekunyanzelweni kokuzicinezela, ukuqinisekiswa kwenkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nokwalelwa kokuthabatha impahla yabucala ngaphandle kwembuyiselo. Ingxelo efunekayo yenkqubo yokulungisa iye yasetyenziswa kwiimeko ezibandakanya inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho, imimiselo yezoqoqosho, kunye nomtshato oziphethe ngendlela efanayo. Ilungelo nxamnye nokuzikhusela ngokwako kuyabhenela ngokwezaphuli-mthetho kwaye kuboniswa kwisilumkiso sikaMiranda.

UMthetho Wesithandathu Ohlaziyiweyo: Ilungelo Lokuvavanywa Kwetyala Elifanelekileyo

ISithandathu SoHlanzo-Mbetho siqinisekisa ukuchotshelwa kwetyala likawonke-wonke elikhawulezayo, elivela kwinkundla yabagwebi engakhethi cango. Kwakhona liqinisekisa ilungelo lokuxelelwa ngezityholo, ukumangalela amangqina, ukunyanzela amangqina okuzikhusela, nokuba nesiluleko esingokwasemthethweni. Ilungelo lokucebisa lanwetshwa ngokuphawulekayo Gideon v. Wainwright[ [1963], ifuna ukuba amagqwetha anike abamangali-mthetho abamangalelwa ngokwetyala letyala. I-andendment ikwindawo ephakathi kumthetho ekwalawulweni.

Ukulungiswa Kwehlabathi: Iimvavanyo Zobugwebi

ISiHlayiso seSember sigcina ilungelo lokuchophela ityala labachopheli-tyala kumatyala asekuhlaleni apho ixabiso lempikiswano lingaphaya kwama-20, likwathintela abagwebi bephondo ukuba baphinde bahlole oko kufunyaniswe ngabachopheli-tyala. Nangona kunqabile ukuba bachazwe ngokweNkundla Ephakamileyo, ingqina inkolelo yabaseki yokuba amajaji asebenza njengengqwalasela kwigunya lejaji aze akhusele abemi kwimi ekuwisweni ngokweenjongo zabo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Uhlaziyo lwesibhozo lukwalela ukugqithisa kwebheyile, ukuhlawuliswa okugqithisileyo, intlawulo egqithisileyo, nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga. Sisiseko socelomngeni lwesohlwayo sokubulawa, izigwebo zobomi ezinyanzelisayo zolutsha, kunye neemeko zasentolongweni. Furman v. Georgia [19972], iNkundla yakwaphula ngokunelisa ukubulawa kwesizwe lonke ilizwe, nangona kamva ichaza ukuba kuhlaziywe imimiselo yokubulawa ukuze kudlule umGaqo-siseko. Isigqibo sokulungisa sihlala singummandla ongundoqo ekuhlazisweni kwesigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho, kuquka neengxoxo zokulahlwa kwetyala kunye nokulahlwa kwempahla yabemi.

UMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Wesi - 1000: Amalungelo Angenazintlukwano

ISinyuso se-Ninth sithi: "Ubalo kuMgaqo-siseko, lwamalungelo athile, aluyi kuthathwa njengolukhanyelwa okanye lucaphule abanye abantu abagcinwe ngabantu. Yayiyinjongo yokuphikisa impikiswano yokuba ukudwelisa amalungelo athile bekuya kuthetha ukuba urhulumente wesizwe unyanzelisa abangabhalwanga. IiNkundla azikhange zisebenzise uMphetho-mda we-Genetic njengesiseko esiyintloko sezigqibo, kodwa zixhasa iimpikiswano zokuzibopha, ukulawulwa komzimba, namanye amalungelo asisiseko angakhankanywwa ngokucacileyo emgathweni.

Uhlaziyo Lweshumi: Ulawulo Olugciniweyo EUnited States

IsiHlanzi soMphetho weshumi leSiphengululo siqinisekisa ukuba amagunya awanikwanga urhulumente worhulumente okanye awalelwe kumazwana agcinelwe oorhulumente okanye abantu. Siquka umgaqo wolawulo lwamarhulumente kwaye siye sacelwa ukuba simisele igunya lorhulumente kwiindawo ezifana norhwebo, ulawulo lwemipu, kunye nolawulo lwezempilo. United States . Lopez [1955] Isigqibo soMpandezelo weSiphengululo seshumi elinamandla ombuso, sihlasela uMthetho weSikolo seSikhulu seSikolo seSikhulu se-Gun [FLT] `ULT] systempereact'' [iiii-Prescesterces]

Uhlaziyo: Ukunciphisa Ubumi Nokulingana

Imfazwe yamakhaya yaphelisa ubukhoboka, kodwa kwafuneka kulungiswe iinguqu ezintathu zomGaqo-siseko ukukhusela amalungelo ama-Afrika asandul' ukukhululwa. Ulungiso lweziHlaliso (_13th, 14th, kunye ne-15) lwabuguqula ngokubhekiselele kulwalamano lomGaqo-siseko nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye kunye negunya lorhulumente.

IsiHluzi Seshumi Elinantathu: Ukupheliswa Kobukhoboka

Igunyaziswa ngoDisemba 1865, uMphetho-Mdathiso weshumi elinesithathu waphelisa ubukhoboka kunye nobukhoboka obungeyomfuneko ngaphandle kwesohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho. Wawumela ukutshintshwa komthetho waseMerika, ngokukhawuleza ukhulula abantu abamalunga nezigidi ezine abakhotyokisiweyo. Noko ke, irejista yangaphandle(ukuvumela ubukhoboka obungeyomfuneko njengesohlwayo solwaphulo-mthetho [ukungagunyaziswanga] ngokuxhatshazwa ngamazwe aseMazantsi ngokuvalelwa, inkqubo eyathi ngokunelisa ngokunelo lokunyanzeleka. Ukupheliswa kwalekwa kwemithetho esemthethweni, nto leyo ekhokelela kumthetho wamalungelo abantu. [[FLT:] ISikolo soMthetho soMthetho-Gwallk [FLT] esikwiSikolo soMthetho wezongasese [FLT]] inikela uhlalutso olubanzi lomthetho kunye nokutyhilo lwasemva.

UMthetho Wokwenziwa Kwemigunyathi Weshumi Eline: Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo Nenkqubo Elindelekileyo

Ngokunokwenzeka, uHlaziyo lweshumi elinesine, olwagunyaziswa ngo1868, lelona lungiselelo libalulekileyo lomgaqo-siseko lokukhusela inkululeko yabemi. Uluntu lwalo lwaguqula [[FLT: 0] uDred Scott isigqibo, sivakalisa bonke abantu abazalweyo okanye abadaliweyo eUnited States ukuba babe ngabemi. I-Bact Programme Claus yandisa iSikhuseli samalungelo abantu kumazwe. [[FLT] ukuququzelela amazwe.[FLT][5], i-FLT] isiseko somthetho webala ([FFLT:]]BN.v].[3]], ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo yezemfundo [FLT]]], iphinde iphinde ixhase i-Fogstion, i-Foglains][3][3]4], ngokokwakhohlo olungundoqo, ngokokwahlukeneyo.[5], kodwa i-19] uG.[5]

UMthetho We - 15 Wokwenziwa Kwamalungelo Abantu Abantsundu

Ngo-1870, uHlaziyo lweDimeter lwalela ukukhanyelwa kwevoti esekelwe kuhlanga, umbala, okanye kwimeko yangaphambili yobukhoboka. Yayikukukusabela okungqalileyo kwiiKhowudi zama-Black Codes zaseMazantsi ezafuna ukubuyisela ubungangamsha obumhlophe. Phezu kwako nje ukupheliswa kwentengiso, ukuvavanywa kwerhafu, ukuvavanywa kokufunda nokubhala, iingxelo zovavanyo, iingxelo zomhlolo, kunye noloyiso olunogonyamelo lokususa ama-Afrika. Yathatha malunga nenkulungwane yezenzo zobugqhinga kunye ne-Voting Rights Actal Acts, ukuze iqalise idinga i-Ampect yowe-19656. Isigqibo seNkundla ephakamileyo se-FLTy. [FL:] County v. Baker [FLD:][F1][2011]) isitshixo sokuthoba i-Roxina i-Roct, sikhokelela ekuvuse-enze i-ezwa kwi-Ampmps, ukuqulueaa amaqela ka-Amp

Ukuhlaziywa Kwezigwebo Zexesha: Ukwandisa Ulawulo - melo Nerhafu

Ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yamashumi amabini kwabakho ukurhoxiswa kwemithetho elawula imicimbi yezoqoqosho neyentlalo. UMthetho woLawulo weSixwemeth (1913) wagunyazisa irhafu yengeniso karhulumente, ukutshintsha kwengeniso karhulumente kwimiqathango erhafu engqalileyo. UHlaliso lweSeventeenth (1913) lwalufuna unyulo oluthe ngqo lwee-Senteenth Commentation, oluthintela impembelelo yezomthetho karhulumente. UMthetho weSindululo weshumi elinesibhozo (19191919) wawiswa yiProjiji yoMpaso-Mpaso-mali, owamiselwa nguMgaqo-siseko waMasinyulo-Mntlalo-ntlalo (1933).

UMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo We - 19: Umvuzo Wamabhinqa

I-1920, uHlaziyo lweNkqutyana lweSinyuko lwathi ekugqibeleni lwanika amabhinqa ilungelo lokuvota emva kwamashumi eminyaka esenzo sobuProfethi obukhokelwa ngamanani afana noSusan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, noAlice Paul. Isivumelwano sokulungisa umbhalo we-(""Ilungelo labemi base-United States lokuvota) ukuphinda bakhethe okanye ukuvalwa kwamabhinqa akuyi kunganyangeniswa okanye ukukhuselwa ngurhulumente waseUnited States okanye naliphi na elinye icala ngenxa yesondo"""(16) ikhuthaza ukuhlaziywa kwe-15thmentetemplity. Ngoxa ithelelwa izigidi, ingakumbi amabhinqa aseAfrika nawaseMelika, iyaqhubeka ijongena imiqobo kamashumi eminyaka. Ukulwa kwemfazwe yokulwela ubufana-5 okanye ukukhuthulwa kwemeko oluphakathi kwamabhinqa, kuquka nokukhuselwa kwelungelo elicekelweyo.

IsiHlanziso seMaphu amabini anesine: Ukupheliswa kwerhafu

Ngo-1946, uHlaziyo lwamashumi amabini anesine lwakwalelwe kwerhafu yonyulo kunyulo lwamagunya asekuhlaleni. Iirhafu zokungquzulana zazisisixhobo esiphambili sokucinezela abavoti eMzantsi, ngokuchaphazekileyo zichaphazela ukuvota kwe-Amerika kunye nengeniso ephantsi. Ingqungquthela yadlulisa intengiso ngenkxaso ye-biparteran ngexesha lomphakamo wombutho wamalungelo abantu. Inkundla ePhakamileyo kamva yandisa ukuvalwa konyulo kulawulo Harper v. Virginia Board of EFoperations[[FLT:] [1966], igawula irhafuthelo yokuvola iirhafuku njengokwa komkelo lokhuseleko olulinganayo. Inkundla kamva yandisa ukupheliswa kwemali ekupheliseni kwemiqatha.

Uhlaziyo lwamashumi amabini anesithandathu:

I-Apix2 - 01 ISichibiyelo se-Sixte sahlisa iminyaka yokuvota ukusuka kuma-21 ukuya kwi-18. Yayiyimpendulo engqalileyo kubantu abaselula ababethi ukuba babebadala ngokwaneleyo ukuba bafumane imfazwe yaseVietnam, babebadala ngokwaneleyo ukuba bavote. Intengiselwano idluliswe ngesantya esiphawulekayo. "imvume yokuvota" ngoMatshi 1971 kunye nokuqhathwa kwamazwe ngeenyanga ezintathu. Yaphawula ukuguqulwa kwesizukulwana kokhetho, nangona uvoti-goduout uthe wawa wafumana amaqela amadala. I-antemps ihlala ingumthetho wokufaka impikiswano malunga nokuthotywa komvota onyaka olandelayo.

Iimpikiswano Zale Mihla: Izinto Ezinokuhlaziywa Nemisebenzi Engazange Iphenjelelwe

Ngeli xesha umGaqo-siseko ungalungiswanga ukususela ngowe-1992 (uHlaziyo lwamashumi amabini anesixhenxe, malunga nonyuko lwemivuzo yequkumbelo), ingxubusho malunga nokulungiswa okutsha iyaqhubeka. Izicelo eziliqela eziphezulu zibonisa inkxalabo eqhubekayo malunga nokulingana, iphulo, kunye notshintsho lwezakhiwo.

ISindululo Samalungelo Alinganayo (ERA)

Eyokuqala eyaveliswa ngowe-1923, iERA iya kuqinisekisa ukuba ukulingana kwamalungelo phantsi komthetho akunakukhanyelwa okanye kupheliswe ngenxa yesondo. Ingqungquthela yadlula iERA ngo1972, kodwa yawa kumazwe amathathu angenayo ukudityaniswa ngexesha lonyaka ka1982. Ngo-202020, iVirginia yaba ngurhulumente wama-38 ukuya kwi-ravize, nangona imibuzo esemthethweni isele ikho malunga nommiselo owenziweyo kwaye nokuba amaphondo angaphinda aphinde afakwe kwiBhunga ngalinye ukususela ngokonyaka. Ukuba i-ERA ibiya kunikezela ngesiseko somgaqo-siseko esicacileyo socalucalucalulo lobufana, umsebenzi, nezinye iindawo. Kwimbali ye-ERA, bona i-[FLD] iEFULD [F]

Iphulo Lokuzitshintshwa Kwemali

Abaxhasi bemali yephulo lezemali baphikisa ngelithi ukupheliswa kwemali yemali yezemali kugunyazisa iBhunga leNkundla ePhakamileyo iSigqibo seNkundla eManyeneyo soluHlulolo] esingonyaka (2010) kunye nemithetho elandelayo ilinganiswe ngokunempumelelo nemali edityanisiweyo nentetho, ivumela ukusetyenziswa kwenkampani kunye nemali epheleleyo. Ukupheliswa komgaqo-siseko somthetho-siseko kuya kunika amandla kwiBhunga kunye nolawulo lwentlawulo lwemali. Iinguqulelo eziliqela zicetyiswe, njenge “Demokhracy for Onke”. Abagxeki bephikisa ukurhoxisana komgaqo ongundoqo wokuHlulo oluQala, kwaye imithetho yokuchaza iluncedo.

Ukunconywa Kwamalungelo Abantu

Emva kwesigqibo Selby County abaxhasi bacebise ukubuyiselwa ukuqinisekisa ngokucacileyo ilungelo lokuvota nokulwa nonyanzelo. Icebiso elithi “Ilungelo lokuvota uMphetho-mda” liya kumisa ilungelo lokuvota konyulo, ukuthintela iimfaneleko zomvoti ezisekelwe kwimali, ukuqinisekisa ukubhaliswa kwevoti, nokukhusela ekuchaseni ukurhoxiswa okusekelwe ekubotshelelweni. Ulo myalelo wemvume uzakuyibeka phantsi imiqathango yesizwe kwaye unike isixhobo esinamandla sokugcina umthetho.

Imida Yemithetho Yongquzulwano

Imida yemithetho yamalungu eKhongophela ibiphikiswana kangangamashumi amabini eminyaka. Uhlaziyo lwamashumi amabini anesine loMphetho-Mda (1951) lungasikelwa imida ibe ngamagama amabini, kodwa akukho mqathango unjalo okhoyo kubameli okanye abameli. Abaxhasi baphikisa imida yegama iya kunciphisa ukunganyaniseki, ukwandisa ulwamkelo, nokuvumela iimbono ezintsha. Abachasi baphikisa ukuba unyulo sele lusebenza njengemida esebenzayo kwaye imida yegama iya kulunciphisa ulwazi lwequmrhu nemfundo yemithetho-mthetho. Nangona kungekho mgamfako yeli iye yadlulisela iNgqungquthela, amanye amagunya amisela imida yawo kwimida yawo kwimimiselo karhulumente, enika ubungqina bokwenene bengxoxo.

Isiphelo: UmGaqo-siseko ojikelezayo nekamva lenkululeko yabemi

Izilungiso zoMgaqo-siseko azizizinto zakudala; zizixhobo eziphilayo eziye zandisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo intsingiselo yenkululeko nokulingana. Ukusuka kwiBhili yamaLungelo eeNtloko ukukhuselwa ngamagunya karhulumente ukuya ekuhlaziyweni kwakhona kobumi kwakhona, ukusuka ekukhetheni kwamabhinqa, ukutshintshweni kolutsha, ukutshintshwa komnye komGaqo-siseko kubonisa ukuvunywa okudibeneyo kokuba umGaqo-siseko umele ukhule nohlanga. Kodwa intengiselwano yenkqubo yokulungisa inzima ngabomgaqo-mva, ifuna ukuba amagunya amakhulu akwizindlu zombini zeBhunga nokuhlaliswa kwemi-mali ngeziqu ezithathu. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba iinguqu ezixhaswe ngokunzulu, zingqina ukuba inxalenye exhaswe ngokubanzileyo yeMgano-siseko. Kodwa isibakala sokuba ukuguquka kwenkqubo kudlule amaxesha angamashumi amabini anesixhenxe

Njengokuba amaMerika eqhubeka ephikisana ngeendlela ezingcono zokukhusela inkululeko yabemi − nokuba kungokutshintshwa okanye ngokucaciswa okutsha kwezo zikhoyo `izifundo zembali zihlala zicacile. Amandla omGaqo-siseko ahlala engekho nje kumbhalo wawo wokuqala kodwa kumandla awo okuhlaziya. Ukuqonda iziphene ezikhusela inkululeko yethu namhlanje kuxhobisa abemi ukuba basekele iziqinisekiso zomgaqo-siseko ngomsongo.