Isiseko Samandla Karhulumente

Amandla karhulumente ligunya lokwenza nokunyanzelisa imithetho, ukwabela oovimba, nokukhokela imicimbi yohlanga. Eli gunya alizilungisi; lisekelwe kwimigaqo esisiseko enjengesivumelwano sentlalo, ulawulo oluqhelekileyo, kunye nomthetho wedemokhrasi. Kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi, igunya lolawulo-moya, lifumaneka ngokuvunyelwa ngabalawulwa, okuboniswa ngomgaqo-siseko kunye nonyulo oluthe rhoqo. Ukuqonda ezi ziseko kubalulekile kubemi abanqwenela ukungenelana ngokunentsingiselo norhulumente wabo baze bawugcine umele.

Imithombo ephambili yamandla karhulumente iquka igunya lomgaqo-siseko, igunya lowiso-mthetho, kunye negunya lokugweba. Isebe ngalinye lorhulumente litsala amandla alo kwimithombo ethile, lidala inkqubo yamagunya ahlukeneyo okwabelana ngamagunya. Ngokomzekelo, umGaqo-siseko wase-United States umisela urhulumente worhulumente onamagunya adweliswe ngokwezigaba, ngoxa ubeka onke amanye amagunya kumaphondo okanye kubantu. Esi sakhiwo sithintela nawaphi na umntu ekufumaneni ulawulo olugqithisileyo.

Abaphathi boburhulumente: Umgaqo-siseko ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, ochaza isakhiwo sikarhulumente noluchaza amagunya esebe ngalinye. Ngokufuthi uquka irejista yamalungelo akhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye ekungeneleni kukarhulumente. Umzekelo, unika iBhunga amandla erhafu, ulawulo lwezorhwebo, ukubhengeza imfazwe, kunye nemali. La mandla adwelisiweyo akhankanyiweyo akhankanyiweyo, kodwa akwathetha namanye amandla afunekayo ukuze aphumeze.

Igunya eligunyazisayo: Amaqumrhu asemthethweni, njengengqungquthela eUnited States okanye iPalamente kuMazwe oMbuso, yenza imimiselo enika amagunya athile kumasebe karhulumente. Le mithetho ichaza umlinganiselo wesenzo solawulo, uqingqo-mali, kunye neenkqubo zokugunyazisa ulawulo. Inkqubo yowiso-mthetho ngokwayo inguvavanyo kumandla olawulo, njengoko imithetho kufuneka igqithe kuwo omabini amagumbi kwaye ityikitywe ngumphathi-mikhosi (okanye isebenzisa i-veto).

Igunya le-Judicial: IiNkundla zitolika umthetho zize zimisele ubugqeba bezenzo zikarhulumente. Ngamandla ocalulo, iinkundla zingawisa imithetho okanye imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo echasene nomgaqo-siseko. Iimeko zophawu olunje Marbury v. Madison [1803]) wamisa eli gunya, ewenza ijajidicari iliso elibalulekileyo kwi-Genestigaltica kunye ne-empliquage.

Iintlobo Zamagunya Karhulumente

Ukuqonda ezi ntlobo kunokwenza amagunya karhulumente abe ziintlobo eziliqela, ngalinye liphumeze injongo eyahlukileyo.

Amandla Anempembelelo

La ngamandla adweliswe ngokucacileyo kumgaqo-siseko. EUnited States, iCandelo I, iCandelo 8 libala amagunya ali-18 akhethekileyo eMbutho karhulumente, kuquka amandla okuboleka imali, ukuseka iiofisi zeposi, nokunyusa umkhosi. Amagunya agunya agunyazisiweyo amisela urhulumente wezwe kumsebenzi ogunyazisiweyo, ngoxa amaphondo egcina igunya elibanzi phantsi koMphengululo-Mdanganiso weSishumi.

Amandla Asetyenzisiweyo

Asingawo onke amagunya karhulumente anokuchazwa ngokweenkcukacha. Amandla asetyenziswayo ngalawo afunekayo ukuze aphumeze amagunya adwelisweyo, nokuba akabhalwanga ngokucacileyo. I-Idict kunye ne-Monity Claus (eyaziwa nangokuthi yi-Ellastic Claus) inika iBhunga lobugosa-gocigocigoci-gosa ukumisela imithetho efunekayo ukuze kuphunyezwe amagunya awo adweliweyo. Umzekelo, lo gama umGaqo-siseko ungagunyazi ibhanki elisembini, iBhanki yokuqala yase-United States imisele iBhanki ephambili phantsi kwamandla ayo okuyila imali kunye nezorhwebo.

Amandla Emvelo

Amandla angundoqo ngabo bathathwa njengabangowona rhulumente olawulayo, njengamandla okuqhuba ulwalamano lwamanye amazwe, ukufumana ummandla, okanye ukukhusela uhlanga. La magunya awadweliswanga kumGaqo-siseko kodwa agqalwa njengayimfuneko kuhlanga ukuze lusebenze. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. iwamkele amagunya emfuza kwiindawo ezifana nenkqubo yamanye amazwe kunye nolawulo loburhulumente.

Amandla akhoyo Nagciniweyo

Kwinkqubo zolawulo, amagunya ahlulwe phakathi koorhulumente besizwe norhulumente. Amandla akhoyo asetyenziswa ngamanqanaba omabini, njengamandla erhafu, alwakhiwo, kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwemithetho. Amandla akhuselweyo [ anganikwanga urhulumente worhulumente worhulumente okanye awalelwayo kumazwe; agcinelwe kumazwe okanye kubantu. Eli candelo lidala ulawulo olumabini olumisela ulawulo olusembini olumini olumiliselweyo nolawulo lwasekuhlaleni.

Imida Yamandla Karhulumente

Amandla karhulumente ayimfuneko kodwa ayingozi ukuba akathintelwa. Ulawulo-mthetho lomgaqo-siseko lumisela imida ekhuselwe ngamaziko, iinkqubo, namalungelo omntu ngamnye.

Imiqathango yoMgaqo-siseko

UmGaqo-siseko umisela imiqathango kwizenzo zikarhulumente zokulondoloza amalungelo abemi. IBhili yoMgaqo-siseko wamaLungelo wase-U.S. iSigqeba samaLungelo sikhusela inkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, yokushicilela, yokuhlanganisa, neyesibongozo. I-Guat Proce Claus yeSicwangciso sika-Xast iyawuthintela urhulumente ekunqandeni nabani na ophilayo, inkululeko, okanye impahla engenayo imigaqo elungileyo. Ukhuseleko lwe-Cemente Clausle ufuna urhulumente ukuba aphathe bonke abantu phantsi kolawulo olufanayo. Inkqubo efunekayo efunekayo i-actisatan imigaqo engakumbi ekuthinteleni amalungelo asisiseko afana nemfihlo, umtshato, ukukhulula abantwana.

Ukwahlukana Kwamandla Nokujongana Nolungelelwano

Amasebe amathathu karhulumente .(legislative, i-gnitive, ne-"i-compal, kwaye i-odoli) ixhomekeke kohlukeneyo. Inkqubo yokuhlola nolungelelwaniso ivumela isebe ngalinye ukuba lisikelele amagunya amanye. Umzekelo, umongameli angawubeka umthetho odluliswa yiBhunga; iKhomishini ingawuyeka lo mbutho kunye namasebe amabini anesithathu; iBhunga liqinisekisa ukumiselwa komongameli; isalathisi solawulo solawulo; kwaye iNgqungquthela ingayimisela imithetho engahambisani nomongameli okanye abagwebi borhulumente. Esi sakhiwo sithintela naliphi isebe elinye ukuba lingalawulwa ngurhulumente.

Umanyano

Umanyano lwahlula amandla phakathi korhulumente osembindini noorhulumente bengingqi (imimandla, amaphondo, okanye amacankan). Eli candelo linikela uhlolo olongezelelekileyo emandleni, njengoko abemi benokufuna ukhuseleko kumgangatho omnye karhulumente nxamnye nokuphangwa yinye. Umzekelo, imithetho karhulumente inganikela ukhuseleko olubanzi kunomthetho wengingqi. Ingqiqo yolawulo loluntu [ oluqhelekileyo [ ithetha ukuba amacandelo anokusebenza njengeekhotharatori zedemokhrasi, ukuzama ngemigaqo yesizwe.

Impinda yezeejaji

Uhlolo lwezomthetho lugunyaziso lweenkundla lokuhlola ubugqeba bemithetho kunye nezenzo zolawulo. Ukuba umthetho waphula umthetho, iinkundla zingawubetha. Eli gunya lamiselwa ngokudumileyo kwi-U.S. . [Madison kwaye iye yamkelwa kwidemokhrasi ezininzi. Uhlolo lwejaji lusebenza njengovavanyo lokugqibela kwimithetho-siseko kunye nezenzo zegunya, ukuqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zihlala kwimida yemithetho-gqeba.

Unyulo Nokuziphendulela Kwezobupolitika

Unyulo oluthe rhoqo luvumela abemi ukuba bathathe indawo yamagosa asebenzisa kakubi igunya okanye atyeshele umdla kawonke-wonke. Isisongelo sokuvotelwa sikhuthaza abameli ukuba bahlonele imida baze bathobele abameli. Imida yemithetho, imimiselo yezemali, nemithetho yemigaqo yemigaqo

Uluntu Lwasekuhlaleni Nezitsalo

Amaphephandaba azimeleyo, amaziko emfundo, amaqela olawulo, nemibutho yoluntu isebenza njengeenja ezigadileyo. Ziphanda izenzo zikarhulumente, zixelela uluntu, zize zikhuthaze inkcaso yokuqhatha. IsiHlomelo sokuQala sikhusela le misebenzi, sidala ingqungquthela kawonke-wonke egcina urhulumente ehleli.

Indima Yabemi Ekuthinteleni Amandla Karhulumente

Abemi abangobantu nje abalawulwa; bangabathathi-nxaxheba abakhutheleyo kwibutho labantu abazenza amaqhinga. Ukuganana kwabo kubalulekile ekulondolozeni imida esemandleni karhulumente nokuqinisekisa ukuba baya kuphendula.

Ukhetho

Ukuncoma yeyona ndlela ingqalileyo abemi abaphembelela ngayo urhulumente. Ngokukhetha abameli abahlonela imida yezomGaqo-siseko kunye nenkululeko yabemi, abavoti bathumela umyalezo malunga nohlobo lolawulo abalulindeleyo. Umvoti osezantsi uvumela izilangazelelo ezikhethekileyo okanye utyekelo lobuzwilakhe ukuba luzalise iphulo.

Ubuchule be-Covic neNkcubeko yesidlangalalisi

Abahlali bangabandakanyeka ekuthetheni ngeeleta eziya kumagosa anyuliweyo, abekho kwiintlanganiso zeholo yedolophu, babe nenxaxheba kwimibhiyozo yoxolo. Intetho yesidlangalala ("enokuba ingumntu okanye yi-intanethi"iyazi okanye i-"i-intanethi) iphembelela oorhulumente ukuba bathethelele izenzo zabo. I-Grasssloots i-mouse efana ne-Civil Rights Movement kunye ne-antivietnam War ithe yayiphikisa ngokunelisa iinkqubo zikarhulumente ezigqalwa njengezingalungisiyo.

Imisebenzi Ephambili Netyala Elisemthethweni

Ukusebenza kwinkundla yabachopheli-tyala kukuhlola ngokuthe ngqo igunya likarhulumente. Ii Julies zigqiba ekubeni netyala okanye ukungabi natyala kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, yaye kwamanye amazwe, amajaji anokungavumi ukuvalelwa ukuba akholelwa ukuba umthetho awukho ngokusesikweni (ukupheliswa). Kwakhona abami basebenza njengabachophele ityala ababuhlolayo ubungqina ngaphambi kokuba kubekwe izityholo, bethintela amatyala ngokungekho ngqiqweni.

Inkululeko Yolwazi Nokubonisa ngaphaya

Imithetho efana noMthetho weFreedom of Information Act (FOIA) inika abemi amandla okucela iirekhodi zikarhulumente. Abacholacholi-ndaba kunye neenja ezijongileyo zisebenzisa ezi zixhobo ukubhenca inkunkuma, ukunganyaniseki, nokuxhaphaza. Ingingqi ezicela amaxwebhu okanye eziya kwiintlanganiso zivuliweyo ziyanceda ekunyanzeleni iimfuno zokubonisa imbonakalo.

Ukuphumeza i-ofisi

Abahlali abanganelisekanga yimeko yemeko banokumela isikhundla sikarhulumente kwimimandla yasekuhlaleni, kwiphondo okanye kwilizwe. Ukuzisa iimbono ezintsha nokuzibophelela kurhulumente olinganiselweyo kungabuyisela ulawulo kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo.

Uhlolisiso Lwetyala: Amandla Karhulumente Nemida Esetyenziswayo

Ukuhlolisisa iziganeko zembali nezexesha lethu kusikhanyisela ngendlela ukungavisisani phakathi kwamandla karhulumente nemiqathango okusebenza ngayo.

Marbury v. Madison (103)

Eli tyala libalulekileyo leNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. lamisela umgaqo wokuhlola. Ngokuvakalisa inxalenye yoMthetho weJadicary wowe-1789 ongekho mgaqo-siseko, iNkundla yaqinisekisa igunya layo lokuphelisa imithetho engqubana nomGaqo-siseko. Esi sigqibo sachaza indima yejaji njengesebe elilinganayo elikwaziyo ukukhangela zombini iiKhonkxa nomongameli.

IMbutho yaMalungelo yaBantwana (1950s-1960)

Ngeli xesha, abaxhasi bacel ’ umngeni urhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni ababenyanzelisa ucalucalulo kunye nocalulo. Ekuqaleni urhulumente wengingqi wathandabuza, kodwa ngezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ([FLT: 0] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[), umthetho (Umthetho wamaLungelo ka1964), kunye nezenzo zolawulo oluphezulu, kwabekwa imiqathango kugunyazo lorhulumente woburhulumente. Lo mbutho wabonisa indlela abemi abanokunyanzela ngayo urhulumente ukuba bawahlonele ngayo amadinga omgaqo-siseko baze bakhusele amalungelo abo.

Itshamli yeWatergate (1972-1974)

Umongameli uRichard Nixon wasebenzisa kakubi igunya − kuquka uphulo kwikomkhulu leKomiti yesiZwe yeDemocratic kunye nokwenyuka okulandelayo komthunzi ogqumathelweyo, ubuhlalutyo, ukuchotshelwa kwemithetho yombutho, kunye nemithetho yokugweba. Inkqubo yokuhlola kunye nolungelelwaniso yaba netyala lokufumana igunya eliphezulu, elikhokelela ekuyekeni kukaNixon. Imposiso ephekileyo ephembeleni iinguqu ezifana ne-Ethics kwi-Rhulumente Act nenkcity yentrafica yezeko.

Igalelo kunye noMthetho wePatriot (Post-9/11)

Emva kohlaselo lwangoSeptemba 11, iBhunga lawisa umthetho we-USA PATRIOT, ukwenziwa komthetho owenziweyo kunye namandla okuhlola. Abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi amalungiselelo afana nokuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi oluninzi kunye nemithetho efihlakeleyo yalwaphula ukhuseleko lwesine loMgaqo-nkqubo wokuzinzisa ngokungekho ngqiqweni. Iingxaki zeNkundla kunye noxinzelelo lukawonke wonke zakhokelela kumgaqo-siseko sowiso-mthetho, kuquka noMthetho we-USA INKULUV, owanciphisa ukuqokelelwa kwemiba yemibaninzi. Le ngxoxo eqhubekayo ibalaselela ubunzima bokulungelelanisa ukhuseleko lwesizwe nenkululeko yabemi.

Ulungelelwano lwegunya namandla exesha likaxakeka

Abalawuli basoloko besebenzisa imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo ukukhupha i-group lowiso-mthetho, bephakamisa imibuzo malunga nemida yamandla olawulo. Umzekelo, uMongameli uDonald Trump (2017) wajamelana nocelomngeni lwenkundla oluninzi kumabala omgaqo-siseko, ngeNkundla ePhakamileyo ekugqibeleni ixhasa uhlobo oluhlaziyiweyo. Ngokufanayo, izibhengezo zeengxaki zesizwe `ezifana noMongameli Trump' wodonga olunodonga ``ukuxhobisa amagunya angaqhelekanga, kodwa iBhunga kunye neenkundla zingawarhoxa umva.

Umanyano ngexesha le-COVID-19

Isifo esingubhubhani savavanya imida phakathi kwegunya likarhulumente norhulumente. I-United States yakhupha imiqathango yokuhlala emakhaya, izindululo zemaski, kunye nokuvalwa koshishino. Urhulumente wesizwe phantsi koMongameli uTrump wabekwa umva, ngoko phantsi koMongameli Biden wakhupha imiqathango yezogoxo yesizwe ejongene neengxaki zomthetho. INkundla ePhakamileyo yavala ezinye izindululo ngoxa ixhasa ezinye, iqinisekisa ukuba amandla karhulumente anemida, ingakumbi xa ephazamisa ulawulo lukarhulumente.

Ucelomngeni Lwanamhlanje Lokuthintelwa Koorhulumente

Ubugcisa obutsha, izisongelo zehlabathi, nokunqongophala kwezobupolitika kudala ucelomngeni olutsha lokulondoloza imida kumandla karhulumente.

Amanani obuqu kunye nobuninzi

Inkqubela-phambili kubugcisa bokuhlola, kuquka ulwaluko lobuso, imigodi yogcino-lwazi, kunye nobukrelekrele obungeyonto, yenza ukuba uphando lukarhulumente olungalinganiyo lukwazi ukujongwa. Ukhuseleko loMphetho-mda wesine lwabhalwa kwinkulungwane ye-18; iinkundla ngoku zixhathisa enoba ulwazi lwamanani olufana ne-data yendawo kunye nee-imeyili lufuna isiqinisekiso. Ityala leNkundla ePhakamileyo Carpeent v. United States yawisa umthetho wokuba umthetho ufune isiqinisekiso sokufikelela iingxelo zexesha lefowuni yeseli, ukumisela iqhinga elibalulekileyo lokufumana i-mfono-mfono.

IRhulumente Yolawulo

Amasebe azimeleyo akhupha imimiselo enyanzelisa umthetho, kodwa ukubekwa kwawo umthetho kusoloko kungenatyala elithe ngqo lobudemokhrasi. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi urhulumente wolawulo ukwandisa amandla olawulo ngaphaya kwemiqathango yomgaqo-siseko. Imithetho efana nolawulo lwe- olulawulayo ixhasa igunya eliphezulu lolawulo lobumongameli kumasebe, ngelinye ixesha abanye benyanzela ulawulo olunamandla olungakumbi lwemithetho kunye nohlalutyo olugwebo. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi [[FLT] Virginia v. 202] [202] igunya le-EPA] lilinganiselweyokulawula iigesi ezishushu, uphawu lokunika umqondiso wokulungisa ukufaneleka komthetho lwezikongalamgaqo-yonga kwi-evalsethi.

Ilungelo Elilawulayo Nolawulo Lwebutho

Impikiswano phakathi komongameli kunye neKhomishini yokufumana ulwazi lokuvavanya imida yokwahlula amagunya. Isiqinisekiso sikaMongameli Nixon solungelo eliphezulu salahlwa United States v. Nixon, imisela ukuba ilungelo aliphelelanga. Imfazwe yanamhlanje engaphantsi kwe-topices kunye namaphepha akwisebe eliphetheyo iyaqhubeka ivelisa amadabi asemthethweni achaza imida yemfihlo yesikhulu.

Isiphelo

Ukuqonda amagunya karhulumente kunye nemiqathango kubalulekile ekukhuthazeni abemi abanolwazi abanokukhusela amalungelo abo kunye namaqumrhu abo anokuphenduliswa. Imithombo yegunya likarhulumente ``i-constitunion, iwignome, kwaye igweba , kodwa ibaluleke ngokufanayo imigaqo elungiselelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba: ukwahlukana kwamandla, ulawulo, ucalucalulo, kunye nokuqulucalucalulo olusebenzayo loluntu. Njengemingeni emitsha enjengeyokuhlola amanani, amandla ongxamisekileyo, kunye negunya lokulawula liphuma, imigaqo karhulumente elinganiselwe iyaqhubeka ibalulekile njengangaphambili. Abahlali abazi amalungelo abo nezakhiwo ezibakhuselayo baxhotyiswe kakuhle kwinkqubo yedemo-demo-demo-demo ye-demo-demoslyo, kunye noncedo lwezimeko ezikhoyo zikarhulumente. [FFOT] [5], izibonelelo ezithelela iNt.[5] ezithena ezithena, [FFU.], ezithenti ezithenakade.] ezithe , ezithena zibonelelo ezi