Ukuqonda indlela igunya likarhulumente elisasazwa ngayo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ezisebenza ngayo iinkqubo zezobupolitika nendlela ezichaphazela ngayo ubomi babemi. Ukwabiwa kwegunya phakathi kwamaziko, amanqanaba, namasebe karhulumente ahlukeneyo kumisela impumelelo, okusesikweni, nokuzinza kolawulo. Olu khokelo lunika indlela ebanzi yokuhamba ngeengcamango ezingundoqo, imizekelo, kunye neengxaki ezinxulumene nokusasazwa kwamandla karhulumente, kunika nabani na ofuna ukuqonda isiseko esicacileyo somgaqo nomthetho kawonke-wonke.

Yintoni Ukusasazwa Kwamandla Karhulumente?

Ulwabelo lwamandla karhulumente lubhekisela kwindlela igunya neembopheleleko ezibekelwa ngayo phakathi kwamasebe, amanqanaba, kunye nabadlali abakwinkqubo yezobupolitika. Iphendula imibuzo esisiseko: Ngubani owenza izigqibo? Ngubani ozenzayo? Ngubani ozichazayo? Ngubani ozichazayo? Lulungelelaniswe njani ulwabelo lokwabiwa kolawulo? Isakhiwo sokwabiwa kwamandla singasuka phezulu (phakathi koorhulumente abaphakathi nabesithi bakwimimandla) okanye ngokuthe tyaba (phakathi komthetho, amasebe alawulayo, alawulayo, kunye nabezomthetho). Ulwabeko olulungeleleneyo luthintela nawuphi na umntu ekufumaneni igunya elingathintelwanga, elilelo loburhulumente.

Isiseko sengcamango yokusasazwa kwamandla kule mihla sitsala kakhulu kwiingcinga zoluHlulo njengoBaron de Montesquieu, owaphikisana Umoya woMthetho owahlula urhulumente kwimisebenzi eyahlukileyo yamasebe ukhusela inkululeko. UJames Madison kamva wakhiwa koku kuFederali Papers, ingakumbi Fideralist No. 51, echaza indlela “ulawulo olumele lwenziwe ngayo ukulwa neminqweno.” Ezi ngcamango ziphembelele ukulwa kwe-U.S.

Iintlobo Zokusasazwa Kwamandla Karhulumente

Iinkqubo zezobupolitika ngokuqhelekileyo ziwela kwimizekelo emithathu ephambili yokusasazwa kwamandla athe nkqo: umanyano, urhulumente, kunye nesivumelwano. Imodeli nganye ineempawu, inzuzo, kunye norhwebo.

Inkqubo ye-Unitary System

Kwinkqubo yeqela, onke amandla olawulo akwingingqi enye yorhulumente. Urhulumente wengingqi okanye wasekuhlaleni ukhona kodwa ufumana igunya lakhe kwisiziko kwaye unokulungiswa okanye apheliswe yilo. Lo mzekelo ukhuthaza imithetho kunye nemigaqo efanayo kulo lonke ilizwe, unciphisa ukuntsonkotha kunye neengxabano ezingokwasemthethweni. Imizekelo iquka iFransi, iJapan, iUnited Kingdom, neTshayina.

Izibonelelo ezikhoyo zeenkqubo zomanyano ziquka ubulula bolawulo, ukwenza izigqibo ngokukhawuleza kwiimeko ezimanqam, kunye nemigangatho yesizwe engaguquguqukiyo. Izixhobo eziluncedo [ ziquka ukungasabeli kwintsebenziswano yasekuhlaleni, ukunokwenzeka kokukhohlawulwa kwe-athority, kunye nokungalawulwa kwengingi. Umzekelo, inkqubo ye France ebekwe kwisiseko somzinzi iye yasusa ngokuthe ngcembe amagunya kwimimandla ukususela koo1980, kodwa urhulumente osembindini usenegunya elipheleleyo.

Inkqubo yomanyano

Inkqubo karhulumente yorhulumente (wesizwe) yahlula amandla phakathi korhulumente ombindini (wesizwe) kunye noorhulumente bengingqi abaninzi (imimandla, amaphondo, iinkanunu). Zombini ezi nqanaba zineendawo ezichazwe ngokwesiseko somGaqo-siseko zegunya ezingenakutshintshwa ngenye indlela. Le mizekelo yenzelwe ukulinganisa umanyano lwesizwe nomanyano lwengingqi. I-United States, iJamani, iIndiya, iCanada, ne-Australia yimizekelo ebalaseleyo.

Umkhosi uvumela ukuba kwenziwe uvavanyo lwenkqubo .ngokufuthi lubizwa ngokuba “ziinkampani zedemokhrasi”" ._________apho amaziko angavavanya iindlela ezahlukeneyo ezifana neziguqulo zezonyango okanye imimiselo yemekobume. Kukwakhusela izithethe kunye neelwimi ezincinci ngokuzinika inkululeko kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni. Noko ke, iinkqubo zesebe zingajamelana neengxaki zomanyano, ukwenziwa kweenkonzo, kunye nokubekwa kwemigangatho yezopolitiko xa urhulumente engavumelani. Inkqubo ye-U.S. kunye nolawulo lwayo oluphindiweyo, luye lwakhokelela kwingxoxo eqhubekayo yamalungelo amazwe anxulumene negunya loluntu, ukusuka kumalungelo amakhaya ukuya kukwenza umbazamo womthetho.

Unxulumano

Kumanyano, kumazwe azimeleyo okanye kwimimandla emisela amandla alinganiselweyo kwigunya elisembindini elibuthathaka logama ugcina ulawulo oluninzi. Urhulumente osembindini usoloko esingatha inkxalabo eqhelekileyo njengokhuseleko okanye ulwalamano lwamanye amazwe, kodwa amazwe angamalungu asoloko egcina ilungelo lokukhupha izigqibo okanye ukurhoxa ngokupheleleyo. Izigqibo zembali ziquka i-United States phantsi kweMimiselo yeNtlalo (1781-1789) kunye neSwiss Confederacy phambi konyaka we-1848. Umzekelo wangoku, oyedwa, umzekelo owendeleyo yi-European Union, ebonakalisa iimpawu ezidibanisa imibambo ephakathi kwemithetho elawulayo kunye nomthetho esemthethweni yamalungu.

Izikhuseli ezikhoyo zomanyano ziquka ubuninzi beziququ zenkululeko kumazwe angamalungu kunye nobubhetyebhetye ukucombulula izilangazelelo ezahlukeneyo. I-Dibradfowed [ iquka ubuthathaka kwintshukumo edibeneyo, ubunzima ekucombululeni impikiswano, kunye nokungaguquguquki , njengoko kuboniwe xa u-U.S. Amanqaku eNXhobeko ewile phantsi koxinzelelo lwezoqoqosho nokhuseleko.

Amasebe Karhulumente: Ukusasazwa Kwamandla Athe Tyaba

Ulwabeko oluthe tyaba lwahlula amandla karhulumente phakathi kwamasebe amathathu: abaphathi, abaphathi bomthetho, kunye nezomthetho. Olu lwahlulo, olusoloko ludityaniswe kumgaqo-siseko, ludala inkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelanisa ukukhusela naliphi na isebe ekulawuleni.

Isebe eliphethe i-Advice

Isebe elilawulayo linembopheleleko yokuzalisekisa nokumisa imithetho, ukulawula imisebenzi karhulumente wemini ukuya kweyosuku, ukuqhuba inkqubo yamanye amazwe, nokuyalela umkhosi. Likhokelwa ngumongameli (inkqubo yangaphambili) okanye ngumphathiswa omkhulu (inkqubo yesebe). Amandla esigqeba ayahluka; kwiinkqubo zomongameli umongameli uzimele kwindlu yowiso-mthetho, ngoxa kwiinkqubo zepalamente umphathi-mikhosi otsalwe kwindlu yowiso-mthetho kwaye unokususwa yivoti yokungathemba.

Imizekelo yehlabathi lokwenene: umongameli wase-U.S. angawuphelisa umthetho kodwa akanakuyichitha iNgqungquthela; ngokuchaseneyo, umphathi-nkulu waseBritane, angabiza unyulo kwaye uphantsi kokuthembeka kwivoti. Isebe eliphetheyo likwaquka amaqumrhu olawulo akhupha imimiselo yomthetho, aphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo ngokubhekisele kumagqiza nokuvelela.

Isebe loMthetho

Isebe lemithetho lidala imithetho, livumela uqingqo-mali, linike umelo lwezinyulo. IiLegislature zisenokuba zii-uncameral (igumbi elinye) okanye ii-bimameral (igumbi ezimbini). I-Bidameralism, njengakwiNdlu ye-U.S. (Indlu neNdlu yeeNtlanganiso) okanye iPalamente ye-UK (iiMonte namaLords), zinika ii-chemossongezo: amagumbi ahlukeneyo amele ii-contitue ee, kwaye kufuneka avume phambi kokuba umthetho wemithetho ye-mthetho.

Amagosa alawulayo akwaqhelisela ulawulo lwegunya ngokuva, uphando, namandla okulawula. Lo msebenzi uye waba ngobalulekileyo njengoko amandla olawulo akhula kumazwe amaninzi. Noko ke, izindlu zowiso-mthetho zinokuthotywa ngentloko ebotshelelweyo okanye zibanjwe zithathelwe izilangazelelo ezikhethekileyo, zinciphise ukusebenza kwazo njengendlela yokuhlola.

Isebe Lejaji

Isebe eligwebayo lichaza imithetho, licombulule iimpikiswano, liqinisekise ukuba umthetho nezenzo zolawulo zihambelana nomgaqo-siseko. Iinkundla ezizimeleyo zibalulekile ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu nasekusekeleni umthetho. Amazwe amaninzi agunyazisa inkundla yawo ephakamileyo (umz., iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S., iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeQumrhu eliPhakelele umGaqo-siseko yaseJamani) ukuqhuba ingqwalasela-mthetho /"ukuthoba imithetho echasene nomgaqo-siseko.

Ukuzimela ngokwamatyala kungumkhuseli obalulekileyo. Izisongelo kwinkululeko yokugweba, enjengenkundla yenkundla okanye ingcinezelo yezobupolitika, zinciphisa ulungelelwano lwamandla. Imizekelo enjengeenguqu zogwebo zasePoland (205-2023) ibonisa indlela urhulumente anokukwenza ngayo kube buthathaka ukuphendula ngokuthe tyaba ngokuhlasela ijaji.

Ukwahlukana Kwamandla Nokujongana Nolungelelwano

Ngoxa amasebe amathathu enemisebenzi eyahlukeneyo, asebenza ngendlela yokuhlola nokulinganisela. Kwimodeli yase U.S.

  • Umongameli (ongacinezeli) unokuwumisela umthetho owiswe yiNgqungquthela (iNkqulu).
  • IBhunga lingayisusa i-veto kunye nobuninzi obubini obuthathu, ukuqinisekisa ukubekwa kwegunya, nokungatyunjwa komongameli.
  • Ijaji isenokuchaza imithetho okanye izenzo eziphantsi ezingekho semthethweni.
  • Umongameli umisela abagwebi, kodwa iNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso iyabaqinisekisa; iNgqungquthela inokubuguqula ubukhulu nolawulo lweenkundla zikarhulumente.

Oku kuvelelana kuthintela naliphi na isebe ekuqokeleleni amandla agqithisileyo. Kwinkqubo zepalamente, ukudityaniswa kwamandla olawulo kunye nemithetho (ukutyunjwa kuvela kwindlu yowiso-mthetho) kuthetha ukuxilonga kuxhomekeke ngakumbi kwijaji, indlu ephezulu, kunye neendibano zomgaqo-siseko. Ukuqonda oku kwahluka kungundoqo ekuqwalaseleni impilo yedemokhrasi yelizwe.

Ukubaluleka Kokwabelana Ngamandla

Ukwabiwa kakuhle kwamandla karhulumente asiyonjongo nje ethethwayo, kodwa inemiphumo esebenzisekayo yenkululeko, ukuzinza nokulawula okuphumelelayo.

  • Ukuyila ubuzwilakhe: Njengokuba uMadison wabhala, “Uqokelelo lwawo onke amandla, uwiso-mthetho, ulawulo oluphezulu, kunye nejaji, kwangaxesha nye... lungachazwa ngokufanelekileyo njengenkcazelo ekwakuyo yengcinezelo.”
  • Ukukhusela amaqela amancinane: iinkqubo zoManyano zivumela amaqela amancinane agcine ukuzilawula kwenkcubeko okanye kwemiba yasekuhlaleni, ukunciphisa ubungozi bengcinezelo yoorhulumente.
  • Ubuchule bokujikeleza obungagqibekiyo: oorhulumente basekuhlaleni kwiinkqubo ezilungeleleneyo bangavumela imigaqo-nkqubo ifikelele kwiimeko zasekuhlaleni, ngokufuthi iphumelela kakhulu kunegunya elisembindini elikude.
  • inxaxheba:[ imigangatho emininzi karhulumente inika amanani okungena angakumbi kubemi ukuba babandakanye imicimbi yezobupolitika, ukusuka kumabhunga asekuhlaleni ukuya kwizindlu zowiso-mthetho zesizwe.
  • Ityala lokuphendula: Xa amandla ohlukeneyo, isebe ngalinye lingajonga amanye, lenze ukuba ukusetyenziswa kakubi kungabi lula ukufihla.

Iingxaki Ekwandiseni Kwamandla Karhulumente

Akukho nkqubo igqibeleleyo. Kwaneentlobo ezicwangcisiweyo zijongene nocelomngeni oluzingisileyo olufuna ukuhlala uphaphile.

Ukunikela Ingqalelo Kumandla

Phezu kwako nje ukwahlukana okusesikweni, amandla anokuphambukela kwisebe elinye. Kumazwe amaninzi, abalawuli baye bandisa igunya labo ngamagunya ongxamiseko, ngemiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo, okanye ngezobugrogrisi. Ukurhoxa kolawulo lowiso-mthetho nokuzimela kwezomthetho kudla ngokubonisa ukuphambuka kwedemokhrasi. Imizekelo iquka iTurkey neHungary, apho kuthe kwatshintsha umGaqo-siseko amandla akwigunya elilawulayo.

Ukonakala Kwezobupolitika

Urhwaphilizo lugqwetha ulwabelo lwamandla ngokuvumela izityebi okanye amaqela anamandla agqithe izakhiwo ezisesikweni. Lunciphisa umthetho, lunciphisa ukuthembana, kwaye lumela abameli. Amasebe alwa norhwaphilizo olungokwasemthethweni abalulekile, kodwa wona ngokwawo angonakaliswa. Iprojekthi ye-World Justice Project of Law Index [[[FLT: 1]] ilandela rhoqo indlela ukonakala okuchaphazela ngayo nokulingana (uqhagamshelwano lomthetho) emhlabeni wonke.

Umelo olwaneleyo

Ukuba izikhululo zowiso-mthetho azibonisi ukwahluka-hluka kwabemi (ngesini, isizwe, udidi, udidi), imithetho ingangalutyeshela uluntu olucekeceke ngokwemiba. Imiba yesakhiwo efana nokuthatha lonke unyulo, ukuphumelela, okanye ukumela okungathethekiyo kungayitshintsha le ngxaki. Kwanakwinkqubo yorhulumente, imimandla okanye amaqela atyebileyo angathatha impembelelo engalinganiyo.

I-Grid lock kunye nokungasebenzi kakuhle

Ukwahlukana okugqithisileyo kwamandla kungakhokelela ekungasebenzini kwemithetho, ingakumbi koorhulumente abahluleleneyo. I-U.S. iye yafumana ukuvalwa rhoqo korhulumente xa iNkqutyana kunye nomongameli bengakwazi ukuvumelana ngoqingqo-mali. Ngokufanayo, iinkqubo zorhulumente zinokuthoba iimpikiswano phakathi kolawulo lwamarhulumente, ukuthoba iimpendulo kwiingxaki ezinjengeendyikitya zendalo okanye iintlekele.

Ukuhlaziywa koMgaqo-nkqubo noQoqo-nkqubo

Amandla okuthoba anokuphucula ukusabela kodwa akwadala ukungaphumeleli kwentsebenziswano. Umthetho wokusingqongileyo, umzekelo, uyabandezeleka xa ummandla ngamnye umisela imilinganiselo yawo ngaphandle kokuthetha ngongcoliso olunqamlezileyo lomda. ICOVID-19 ibalaselisa indlela ezisebenza ngayo iinkqubo zorhulumente (njenge-U.S. kunye ne-Indiya) ezilwa nemilinganiselo yempilo kawonke wonke eguquguqukayo, lo gama iinkqubo ze-yunithi ye- unitary (njenge-New Zealand) zinokusebenza ngokukhawuleza.

Utyekelo Lwanamhlanje Lokusasaza Amandla

Oorhulumente bayaqhubeka beguqula amandla abo ngenxa yokudityaniswa kwehlabathi, ubugcisa nenkxalabo engokwentlalo.

Indaleko ne-Autonomy

Amaphondo amaninzi azimeleyo anee-oceals ezihluzekileyo kwimimandla yamashumi eminyaka akutshanje. I-United Kingdom iye yanciphisa iipalamente eSkotlani, eWales, naseMntla Ireland; abantu baseSpeyin abazilawulayo banemithetho ephawulekayo; iFransi yakha imimandla ngamabhunga anyuliweyo. Indaleko isoloko izimisele ukulawula intlalo-ntle okanye ukuphucula ulawulo lwengingqi ngaphandle kolawulo lolawulo olupheleleyo.

Ulwandiso lwamazwe ngamazwe

I-European Union imela umaleko omtsha wolawulo ngaphezu kwesizwe esisentla. Ilungu lichaza ulawulo oluphakathi kwimimandla enjengezorhwebo, ukhuphiswano, namalungelo abantu, ukuyila inkqubo exubeneyo engekho ngqiqweni okanye yesizwe. INkundla ye-EU yobulungisa ingayiphelisa imithetho yamazwe, ngelixa amazwe elawula irhafu kunye nenkqubo yamanye amazwe. Le mizekelo ikhuthaza ukukhutshwa kwemibutho yesizwe kodwa ibonisa indlela ulwabeko lwamandla olunokuziqhela ngayo kwiingxaki ezifana nokutshintsha kwemozulu kunye nomgaqo-manani.

Ulawulo lwamanani kunye neenkqubo ezihlaziyiweyo

Ubuxhakaxhaka bulucelomngeni lokusetyenziswa kwamandla aqhelekileyo. Amaqonga ezentlalo-ntle anokukwandisa amazwi athile aze athobe amasebe athile asemthethweni. I-tabchain kunye ne-edemorality yeentlangano ezizimeleyo (DAOs) icebisa imizekelo emitsha yokulawula ngaphandle kwegunya elisembindini. Okwangoku, oorhulumente balwa nolawulo lobugcisa obukhulu(a amandla athe tyaba phakathi komzabalazo wowiso-mthetho, olawulayo, namasebe owiso-mthetho, kwakunye nemibuzo ethe nkqo yeliphi iqondo likarhulumente (lokummandla, lohlanga, ummandla wesizwe) kufuneka alawule ugcino-data kunye ne-IA. Umzekelo, umgangatho jikelele wogcino-lwazi lwe-UMGRANC (GPR) umisela umgangatho wolawulo lwehlabathi lonke, kodwa ugxininisomthetho lwawo lwezomthetho, kodwa uxhomekeke kumalungu abaphathi-monga.

Uhlalutyo lothelekiso lweemodeli zokusasaza amandla

Amazwe awahlukahlukeneyo adibanisa ulwahlulo oluthe nkqo noluthe tyaba ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo.

  • I-United States: Ulwahlulo oluthe tyaba oluthe tyaba (inkqubo ye-presidential, iBhunga le-bimeral, i-judiary ezimeleyo) kunye nolawulo lorhulumente oluthe nkqo (lolawulo loburhulumente). Intsingiselo yakutshanje ibonisa amandla aphezulu anyukayo kunye nokwehla kommandla we-R2010.
  • UBukumkani obumanyeneyo: Udibaniso oluthe tyaba (umphathi oyintloko, Indlu Yolawulo Oluqhelekileyo) nge-aymmetal devolution (amandla amakhulu eSkotlani, ambalwa kwimimandla yamaNgesi).
  • IsiJamani: inkqubo yeSizwe ngentsebenziswano eyomeleleyo esuka phezulu (igunya lolawulo loluntu) kunye nenkqubo yepalamente enenkundla eyomeleleyo yomGaqo-siseko. Amandla asasazwa ngomelo lolungelelwaniso kunye noorhulumente abasebenzisanayo.
  • Fransa: Inkqubo ye-Unitary ngegunya elinamandla (i-semi-presities) kunye nolawulo olusembindini. Utshintsho lwangoku lokuguqula izinto alutshintshanga ngokusisiseko ulawulo lombindi.

Imodeli nganye inee-odokisi. Inkqubo ye-U.S. ikhusela inkululeko kodwa inokubekwa phambili; inkqubo ye-UK iyaphumelela kodwa ibeka ubomi esichengeni; intsebenziswano yegunya leJamani yenza uzinzo kodwa isenokuba nexesha elicotha; ukubekwa kwemikhosi yeFransi kwenza ukuba kungenelwe ngokukhawuleza kodwa kubeke imiqathango ekuthabatheni inxaxheba kwindawo yasekuhlaleni.

Isiphelo

Ulwabelo lwamandla karhulumente ngumgaqo wokumisela indlela elisetyenziswa ngayo igunya lezobupolitika, elijongwe laza lakhutshwa ngayo. Ngokuqonda imodeli ezahlukeneyo `ubunye, urhulumente, i-contederal( kunye namasebe karhulumente, abemi bangaqwalasela ngcono ukusebenza nempilo yesixokelelwano sabo sobupolitika. Okubalulekileyo kukufumana ucelomngeni oluqhubekayo: ukuxineneka kwamandla, ukunganyaniseki, izithuba, nokufuna ukuqhelanisa nobugcisa obutsha kunye nomanyano lwehlabathi lonke. Ukuqonda ezi zixhobo kunika amandla abantu ukukhuthaza ulungelelwaniso, ukulawulwa. [[FLT:] ukuqhubekela ufundo, [[FL:0]] oluqhubekayo lobukhokeli borhulumente kunye nolu lwabiwo olunexabiso [FLT] [FFF] [FFF] [3]