Inkqubo yokugweba imi njengelinye lamasebe amathathu alinganayo karhulumente kulawulo-bume, ethwele imbopheleleko eqatha yokutolika nokusebenzisa umthetho. Iinkundla zenza okungakumbi kunokucombulula nje iimbambano; zisebenza njengenkqubo yokuqala yokuqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni kulawulwa ngokungaguquguqukiyo, ngokungakhethi, kwaye ngokuvisisana nemigaqo emiselweyo esemthethweni. Kubafundi bomthetho, inzululwazi yezobupolitika, kunye nemiba enxulumene nayo, ukuqonda imisebenzi yenkundla ebaluleke kakhulu ibalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ibutho lenkundla eligcina ngayo ulungelelwano, ukukhusela inkululeko, kunye nolungelelaniso phakathi kwamaziko eenkundla. Eli nqaku lilungiselela ukuhambela phambili kwenkqubo yenkundla, imisebenzi yalo, iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zeenkundla, kunye neempembelelo ezinxulumene nazo, izigwebo zezomthetho ezilawula ibutho labantu.

Isiseko Sembali Senkqubo Yenkundla

Inkqubo yenkundla yanamhlanje inemvelaphi esuklele kwiinkulungwane. Iindlela zokuqala zempikiswano zazikho kwimpucuko yamandulo enjengeMesopotamia, iGrisi, neRoma, apho amagosa amiselweyo okanye iindibano ezimiselwe ngokwemilo engokwesiko okanye enxulumeneyo. Isithethe somthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, esasiphembelela ngamandla iinkqubo zomthetho zaseUnited States kunye namanye amazwe amaninzi, saseka imigaqo engundoqo efana nokuvavanywa ngabachopheli-tyala kunye nemfundiso yesithethe (iii-decisis). Ekuhambeni kwexesha, ezi ngcamango zavela kwimibutho lenkundla yamatyala ekwalathisela iphondo zabona, zinendima ecacileyo yokuvavanywa, i-appellaste, kunye neenkundla ezininzi.

Ukuphuhliswa komgaqo-siseko wezicwangciso zenkulungwane ye-18 neye-19 kwayiqinisa ngokubhekele phaya indima yesebe lejaji njengesebe elizimeleyo lorhulumente. Umgaqo wokuzimela geqe ````inkundla'' kufuneka zikhululeke kwimiqobo yezopolitiko''. Lo mbandela wembali ubalulekile ekuqondeni isizathu sokuba iinkundla zisebenza ngocoselelo ngolu hlobo lwenkxalabo, ngokungakhethi cala, kunye nokuqiqa.

Imisebenzi yeCore yeeNkundla kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni

Iinkundla zenza imisebenzi emininzi enxulumeneyo esisiseko kumthetho. Le misebenzi idlulela ngaphaya kwesivumelwano esiquka ukutolikwa komthetho, ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo abantu, ukunyanzeliswa komthetho, nokudalwa kwemizekelo engokwasemthethweni.

1. Izigqibo zokuxambulisana

Umsebenzi obonakalayo weenkundla unikela inkundla esesikweni, elungele ukucombulula iimbambano zamakhaya nezaphuli-mthetho. Kwityala loluntu, amaqela amabini azimeleyo , njengabantu ngabanye, amashishini, okanye imibutho ." azisa izityholo ezingqubanayo phambi kwejaji okanye abachopheli-tyala. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, ityala libeka umntu etyholweni lokwaphula umthetho. Iinkundla ziqinisekisa ukuba omabini amacala afumane ukuchotshelwa ngokufanelekileyo, okokuba ubungqina bunikelwe kwaye buhlolisiswe phantsi kwemithetho ebhaliweyo, nokuba umenzi wesigqibo sobundilele unikela isigqibo. Le nkqubo ithintela amaqela ukuba angabheki kwisigqibo sokuzinceda okanye sokulawula okusesikweni okuphaphileyo, ngaloo ndlela agcine ulungelela umgaqo woluntu.

Ukucaciswa Kwemithetho

Imimiselo, imimiselo, kunye nemimiselo yezomgaqo-siseko isoloko ibhalwa ngolwimi olubanzi okanye oludityanisiweyo. Iinkundla zisebenzisa amandla okutolika okucacisa intsingiselo yezi Zibhalo zomthetho. Ngohlalutyo lomgaqo-mthetho, ulwimi olucacileyo, kunye nomthetho ongaphambili, abagwebi bagqiba indlela umthetho osebenza ngayo kwiingongoma ezithile. Lo msebenzi ubaluleke ngokukhethekileyo kumthetho omnye apho izigqibo zezomthetho zigqumathela imizekelo. Inkundla ephakamileyo, umzekelo, iye yatolika isindululo sokuthetha sesiHlalelo sokuqala senkululeko yokuthetha, kunye nomthetho osisigxina sentetho enzima ekungenakuze kucingelwe ngayo, njenge-Internet nezenzo zomfuziselo.

3. Ukukhuselwa Kwamalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Iinkundla zisebenza njengabameli bamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye nawomthetho. Xa umntu ekholelwa ukuba amalungelo awo ophulwe ngurhulumente, umbutho, okanye omnye umntu, banokufuna ukubuyiselwa kwinkqubo yokugweba. Iinkundla zinegunya lokuvakalisa imithetho engawi phantsi komthetho, imimiselo yokuphelisa izenzo eziyingozi, kunye nokuyalela imbuyekezo yomonakalo. Lo msebenzi ubalulekile ekukhuseleni amaqela asezantsi kwaye uqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente zihlala zingekho kwimida esemthethweni. Izigwebo ezifana ne [[FLT: 0] Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo[FLT:] (1954) kunye [FLT:] ne-act:0] . . . . . . . . . . .[[FLT.5]

4. Ukunyanzeliswa kwemithetho

Iinkundla zigweba abantu ngabanye kunye nemibutho ejongene netyala lokwaphula imithetho. Ngezityholo zolwaphulo-mthetho, bamisela isohlwayo esinjengentengo, ukuvalelwa kwetyala, okanye kwanesohlwayo sokubulawa (apho kuvumelekile khona). Kwityala lasekuhlaleni, iinkundla zingayalela ukuba kuhlawulwe umonakalo, isenzeka okuthile okanye ezinye iingxelo. Lo msebenzi wokunyanzelisa uthintela ulwaphulo-mthetho kwixesha elizayo kwaye uqinisekisa ukuzinikela kwebutho labantu kwimigaqo esemthethweni. Ngaphandle kweenkundla ukuxhasa izenzo zowiso-mthetho nezolawulo, imithetho iya kungabi namazinyo nokuthobela imithetho ngokokuzithandela.

5. Ukudala Iziganeko Zasemthethweni

Ingakumbi kwiinkqubo zomthetho oqhelekileyo, iinkundla ezilawulayo kunye neenkundla eziphakamileyo zivelisa imizekelo ebophelelekileyo ngezimvo zazo ezibhaliweyo. Le mithetho ikhokela iinkundla ezisezantsi, abamisi-mthetho, kunye noluntu ngendlela iimbambano ezifanayo ezimele zicombulule ngayo kwixesha elizayo. Udidi luqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki nokuxelwa kwangaphambili komthetho, ukuvumela abantu namashishini ukuba bacwangcise imicimbi yabo ngokuqiniseka ngakumbi. Xa inkundla ilawula imizekelo yangaphambili, ibonisa ukuguquka kwenkcazelo esemthethweni enokuba nemiphumo efikelela kude.

Iintlobo zeeNkundla nemisebenzi yazo ekhethekileyo

Iinkqubo ezininzi zokugweba zilungelelaniswe ngooontloko, nomgangatho ngamnye onemithetho nembopheleleko eyahlukileyo. Ukuqonda le miQuquzelelo kunceda kucacise indlela amatyala ahamba ngayo kwinkqubo nendlela akhutshwa ngayo.

Iinkundla zokuchophela ityala (IiNkundla zeQumrhu lokuqala)

Iinkundla zetyala zilapho kuvela khona amatyala. Ziva ubungqina, zihlolisisa amangqina, zize zifumanise izibakala zetyala. Kwimimandla emininzi, iinkundla zamatyala zahlulwa ngokweenkundla ezikhethekileyo ezifana nezaphuli-mthetho, imicimbi yamakhaya, intsapho, iprobate, kunye nezityholo ezincinane. Imisebenzi ephambili yeenkundla zamatyala iquka:

  • Ukufumana nokuhlolisisa ubungqina, kuquka amaxwebhu, ubungqina kunye nemiboniso ebonakalayo.
  • Ukusebenzisa imithetho ebhaliweyo ukuqinisekisa ukuchotshelwa kakuhle (umz., imithetho yobungqina, ukufumanisa, ukudanisa).
  • Ukugqiba ityala okanye ityala qha yijaji (ityala letyala) okanye inkundla yabachopheli-tyala.
  • Ukukhupha imigwebo, izigwebo okanye imiyalelo ecombulula ityala elikhethekileyo.

Iinkundla zamatyala ngamahashe asebenzayo ejaji, asingatha izigidi zamatyala nyaka ngamnye eUnited States kuphela.

IiNkundla eziBandakanyekileyo

Asiyonto yonke elawulayo enenkundla ephakathi, kodwa abaninzi benza oku ukuze bakhulule umthwalo enkundleni ephakamileyo. Ezi nkundla zihlola izigwebo ezivela kwiinkundla zamatyala ngenxa yeziphambeko. Imisebenzi yazo iquka:

  • Ukuhlola ingxelo yamalingo yokubona iimpazamo zendalo okanye iindlela ezingalunganga zomthetho.
  • Ukuva iimpikiswano ezithethwayo ezivela kumagqwetha amacala omabini ngokuphathelele imibuzo engokwasemthethweni.
  • Iimbono ezikhuphayo ezinokuqinisekisa, zibuye umva, okanye ziphinde ziguqule ityala lazo ukuze kuqhutywe ezinye iziganeko.
  • Ukudala umzekelo onyanzelisayo kulawulo lwabo lobume okanye lombathisi.

Iinkundla eziphandayo azizichazi izibakala; zigxininisa kusini na ukuba inkundla yamatyala iwusebenzisa ngokufanelekileyo umthetho.

IiNkundla Eziphakamileyo NeeNkundla Zokugqibela

Inkundla ephakamileyo kummandla ophakamileyo, --esoloko zibizwa ngokuba yiNkundla Ephakamileyo, inesithethi sokugqibela kwiimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni. Imisebenzi yayo ingaqhelekanga kwaye inamandla:

  • [[UMTL:0] Udityaniso oluphakathi: Inikezela ngezigqibo ezingenakubhena, inika uvalwa kwiimpikiswano zomthetho.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] ICunistigal Review: Imisela enoba imimiselo, izenzo zolawulo, okanye izigqibo ezisezantsi zenkundla ziyawuchasa umgaqo-siseko.
  • Uguqulo: ngokumisela imizekelo ebopheleleyo, iqinisekisa ukucaciswa okungaguquguqukiyo komthetho ngaphaya kolawulo lonke.
  • [[UMTHLU: 0] Impinda Ekhethiweyo: Iinkundla eziphezulu zikhetha ukuba ngawaphi amatyala okuva, ukuqwalasela kwimicimbi ebalulekileyo okanye imilo phakathi kweenkundla ezisezantsi.

Ngokomzekelo, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States, inika nje isibeleko esimalunga nesi - 1 ekhulwini samawakawaka ezicelo esizifumanayo, ikhetha amatyala abandakanya imibuzo ebalulekileyo engokomGaqo-siseko okanye ukwahlulwa kweziphaluka zikarhulumente.

Indima YaBagwebi Ekuphumezeni Okusesikweni

Abagwebi bangabathathi-nxaxheba abaphambili kwinkundla. Uqeqesho lwabo, ingqibelelo, nokungakhethi buso zibalulekile ekuthembekeni kwejaji. Iimbopheleleko zomgwebi ziquka:

  • Ukukhokela iinkundla, ukugcina ucwangco nokuqinisekisa ukuba uziphatha kakuhle.
  • Ulawulo lwemiqathango engokwesithethe kunye nokuchasa okucacileyo.
  • Ukuqeqesha abagwebi ngomthetho osebenzayo kunye nemisebenzi yabo.
  • Xa ubhala iimbono ezichaza indlela eziqikelelwa ngayo izigqibo ezingokwasemthethweni, ingakumbi ezingoonobumba.
  • Ukulawula ityala ngokunempumelelo ukuphepha izivumelwano ezilibazisayo.

Abagwebi balindeleke ukuba balubeke ecaleni ucalucalulo lobuqu baze bagqibe amatyala kwizibakala nakumthetho onikezelwayo. Olu kuzinikela ekungakhethi buso luqiniswa ngemithetho yehambo egwebayo, ingqeqesho yemilinganiselo yokuziphatha, nakwimimandla emininzi, inkqubo yokuchonga okanye ukumisa ecetyelwe ukunciphisa impembelelo yezobupolitika. Kwimithetho engakumbi, bona iKhosi yeNdlela yaBagwebi baseUnited States.]

Enye Impikiswano Nesigqibo Nolwalamano Lwayo Neenkundla

Ngeli xesha iinkundla zingumsebenzi oqhelekileyo wokucombulula iimbambano, iinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho zikhuthaza okanye zigunyazise ngokuqhubekayo okanye iindlela zokuphelisa impikiswano (ADR) ezichaseneyo (ezinjenge-mediating, ukuququzelela, kunye nokuphendulana ) ukunciphisa umthwalo kwiinkundla nokunika amaqela amanyathelo anokuguquka ngakumbi, okungaphindi kulula kakhulu. I-ADR ayithathi indawo yenkundla kodwa iyayixhasa. Iinkundla zingabhekisela kwiimeko zokuphelisa, ukunyanzelisa izivumelwano zokwamkelwa, nokuhlola amabhasolo ngenxa yokusesikweni. Ukuqonda i-ADR kuyimfuneko kumfanekiso opheleleyo wendlela yokugweba okunga okunikezelwa ngayo, njengepesenti enkulu yetyala ngoku ihlala ihleli okanye igqitywe ngeADR phambi kokuba ifikelele ukuvavanywa kwetyala.

Umahluko kwiNkundla: uBunganiso boManyano. Inkqubo

Kumazwe aseburhulumenteni anjenge-United States, iIndiya, neJamani, kukho iinkqubo ezimbini ezidibeneyo zenkundla yenkundla: iinkundla zephondo kunye nenkundla zephondo (okanye iphondo). Iinkundla zoManyano zisingatha amatyala abandakanya umthetho karhulumente, imibandela yomgaqo-siseko, iimbambano phakathi kwamazwe, kunye nemiba ethile efana nokubhaliswa kwamali kunye nokungalawuleki. Iinkundla zezorhulumente zisingatha amatyala amaninzi, kuquka amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, umthetho wentsapho, kunye neengxoxo zesivumelwano. Inkqubo nganye inemigangatho yayo ephambili yokuvavanywa, i-appellate, kunye neenkundla eziphakamileyo. Le mithetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho iqinisekisa ukuba imithetho yesizwe ichazwa ngokufanayo ngoxa ithetha imicimbi yobuqu kwimimandla yezomthetho.

Ukutshona okunzulu kwisakhiwo sesakhelo sejaji ye-U.S., tyelela i-ofisi U.S. ii-website zeNkundla.

Impembelelo yeeNkundla Embuthoni Nakumgaqo-nkqubo Kawonke-wonke

Izigqibo zenkundla zivakala ngaphaya kwamaqela abandakanyekileyo. Isigwebo esingundoqo singabumba impembelelo yobomi bentlalo nezobupolitika zelizwe. Qwalasela ezi ziphumo zilandelayo:

  • Ulawulo lwelizwe: Izigqibo ezifana Roe v. (1973]) okanye I-Citamizen United v. FEC (2010) impembelelo ngqo yenkqubo kawonke-wonke ekukhutshweni kwemigqomo nemali yephulo, iqalisa ingxoxo eqhubekayo.
  • Inkundla eziququzelelayo: zingaqinisekisa okanye zicel ’ umngeni isimo sengqondo soluntu esixhaphakileyo. Umzekelo, isigwebo sokulingana komtshato sanceda ukukhawuleza ukutshintsha kumbono kawonke-wonke.
  • Ukhuseleko lwamaqela aGqityiweyo: Ngokunyanzelisa imithetho elwa nocalulo kunye nesiqinisekiso somgaqo-siseko, iinkundla zinika indawo kubemi abasengozini ukuqinisa amalungelo abo.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Ityala lowiso-mthetho:[ IiNkundla zihlola izenzo zolawulo kunye nokumiswa kowiso-mthetho ukuqinisekisa ukuba ziyavumelana nomgaqo-siseko namalungelo asisiseko.

Impembelelo yezigwebo zomthetho idlulela ngaphaya kwenkundla, ichaphazela umthetho, inkqubo yolawulo, kwanolwalamano lwezizwe ngezizwe. ukuvumelana nokugweba ngokuchasene nokuthintelwa [[FLT: 1] kusengumxholo wengxubusho eqinileyo yolwazi noluntu.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye nokuhlaziywa kweeNkundla

Ubuxhakaxhaka butshintsha indlela iinkundla ezilawula ngayo okusesikweni. Noko ke, ubugcisa bukwazisa imingeni: ukuqinisekisa ukungabikho kwekhompyutha, ukunikezelwa kobungqina bamanani, kunye nokuva okuzidibeneyo (ngokungakumbi kukhawuleziswe yisifo se-COVID-19) buye bandisa ukusebenza nokufumaneka. Iinkundla ezininzi ngoku zisebenzisa iinkqubo zokulawula amatyala ukulandelela ii-screads kunye nocwangciso lwee-auto.

Inkululeko Yejaji Nenkuselo Yayo

Ukuze iinkundla zisebenze ngokunempumelelo, kufuneka zizimele kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika, impembelelo yezoqoqosho, kunye noluvo lukawonke-wonke. Ukulondolozwa kubandakanya ubomi okanye ukumiswa kwexesha elide kwabagwebi, ukukhuselwa ekuncitshisweni kwemali, nemithetho yokuziphatha engqongqo. Kumazwe amaninzi, ibhunga elizimeleyo lokwalathisa ukubekwa nokuqeqeshwa. Xa ezi nkokeli zibuthathaka, ukungacaluli kweenkundla kungaphikiswa, nto leyo ekhokelela ekulahlekelweni yintembelo kawonke wonke. Ukuzimela kwejajiko-mthetho kungumqulu obuthathaka kodwa oyimfuneko wedemokhrasi; ukulondolozwa kwalo kuhlala kungumsebenzi wabaphengululi bezomthetho noodabi. I-Ofishi yeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo kwi-Dimoristiki neCrimenti inikela inkcaciso eluncedo yemigangatho yezomthetho yezomthetho [[FLT:]]

Iimbambano Ezijamelene Neenkundla Zanamhlanje

Nangona zibalulekile, iinkundla zijamelene neengxaki eziphawulekayo ezinokuthintela ulawulo lobulungisa:

  • Colaise Backlogs: Kumazwe amaninzi, iinkundla zoyiswa ngamatyala, nto leyo ekhokelela ekulibaziseni okuchasene nomgaqo "wokungagwebi lithuba lokusesikweni kukhatywa sesikweni.
  • [[UMTHLOBO:0] Imithombo: Imali engoneleyo kwizindlu zenkundla, ubugcisa, kunye nabasebenzi ingathoba ubunjani bobulungisa.
  • Access kubulungisa: Abantu abaninzi abanako ukufikelela umelo olusemthethweni, kwaye iinkqubo zenkundla zihlala zintsokothile. Amaziko okuzinceda kunye neenkqubo ze-probono zizama ukuphendula oku.
  • Ukubekwa kwemithetho ngokwezikhundla: Amadinga eeJaji athe abekwa phantsi kakhulu kwamanye amazwe, okuchaphazela igunya elicingelwayo leenkundla.
  • [ Umthetho ojikelezayo kunye noMbutho: Iinkundla kufuneka zibambene neempikiswano ezinolwazi ukusuka kwi-inthaneti ukuya kwi-bioethics, ngokufuthi ngaphandle kokhokelo olucacileyo lwemithetho-mthetho.

Ukulungisa le mingeni kufuna utyalo-mali, utshintsho, kunye nozibopheleleko oluzinzileyo kumthetho. Iintlangano ezinjengeZiko lesizwe leNkundla zikaRhulumente ziqhuba uphando kwaye zibonelela ngoovimba bokuphucula ulawulo lwenkundla.

Isiphelo

Imisebenzi yeenkundla idlulela ngaphaya kwesisombululo esilula sempikiswano. Iinkundla zichaza kwaye zinyanzelisa imithetho, zikhusela amalungelo abantu ngabanye, zidala imizekelo emiselweyo, zize ziphendule oorhulumente. Zisebenza kwisakhiwo solawulo olulawulayo esilungelelanisa imfuneko yeemvavanyo ezifanelekileyo ngokuhlola ngenyameko. Abagwebi basebenza njengabagwebi abangakhethiyo, kwaye ukuzimela kwabo kubalulekile ukugcina intembelo kawonke wonke. Njengoko ibutho labantu lizenza, iinkundla zilungelelanisa, zisebenzisa ubugcisa, zinyusa ukufikelela kubulungisa, okanye zijongene nemibuzo emitsha esemthethweni. Abafundi kunye nabafundisi abafuna ukuqonda indlela esetyenziswa ngayo ngokusesikweni, uxabiso olupheleleyo lwenkqubo yenkundla akuyo nje imfundo nje; kubalulekile ukugcina ubumi boluntu kunye nokulondoloza imilinganiselo yedemokhrasi.