Urhulumente waseUnited States usebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yokwahlula amagunya, uhlula igunya phakathi kwamasebe amathathu alinganayo: uwiso-mthetho, impatho-mthetho, kunye nezomthetho. Esi sakhiwo, esibekwe kumGaqo-siseko, silungiselelwe ukuthintela naliphi na isebe elinye ekufumaneni amandla agqithisileyo. Kodwa phezu kwayo nje indima yalo esisiseko kumasebe aseMerika, abemi abaninzi banezi ngcinga ezithelekeleli ezithe ngqi ngendlela la masebe asebenza ngayo kwaye asebenzisana ngayo. Oku kungaguqula impikiswano kawonke-wonke, kudala ukulindela okungafezeki kwamagosa anyuliweyo, kwada kwana nokuthob ’ idelelo kumaziko edemokhrasi. Kulo lwandiswa, siya kuphelisa iingcamango eziqhelekileyo ngamasebe amathathu karhulumente, ukunikela iinkcazelo ezicacileyo ezisekelwe kwimigalelo yembali, kunye nenkqubo yanamhlanje.

Intsomi 1: Isebe Elisemthethweni Liyayilawula

Yinkolelo esasazeke ngokubanzi yokuba iNkqutyana — iNdlu yabameli kunye neNdlu yeNdlu yeeNtlalo — inegunya elipheleleyo ekwenzeni umthetho. Ngeli nqaku I leMigaqo-siseko ibeka intloko-siseko "yonke imigaqo-mthetho" kwiBhunga, inyaniso isebenzisana kakhulu. Inkqubo yowiso-mthetho ibandakanya igalelo eliqhubekayo elisuka kumasebe alawulayo nawaselugwebeni, idala umngqungqo ontlukwano oluntsonkothileyo wezicelo, incokola, kunye nohlalutyo.

Ulawulo Lweveto

Xa iKhomishini igqithisa umthetho, kufuneka inikwe uMongameli ukuze ivunywe. UMongameli angawusayina umthetho okanye anikezele i-veto, ngokunempumelelo ebuyisela uxwebhu kwiKhomishini ngokuchasa. Umongameli we-veto angachaswa kuphela ngesithathu sento enkulu ekwimibhobho emibini ephezulu kwigumbi lokuhlala i—a umvalo ophezulu owenziwe ngabom ukuze usebenze nzima. Ukususela ngowe-17.89, oomongameli baye banyusa iindleko ezingaphezu kwama-500, ngephepha elingaphantsi kwesihlanu se-5%. Oku kuthetha ukuba isebe eliphetheyo linesandla esithe ngqo, esinamandla sokulungisa izikweleta eziba ngumthetho.

Impinda yezeejaji nengcaciso yemithetho

Kwanasemva kokuba umthetho umisiwe, isebe lejaji linempembelelo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo kunye neenkundla ezisezantsi zesizwe zinamandla okuhlola i-&mdash yomthetho; igunya lokuvakalisa imithetho ngaphandle komthetho kwaye ngenxa yoko ingenanto. Ibekwe kwimodeli yomzekelo (1803 kwamanqaku eemeko . [Madison], eli gunya liqinisekisa ukuba umthetho kufuneka uvumelane noMgaqo-siseko. Ngaphezu koko, iinkundla zichaza ulwimi olucacileyo, ngokunempumelelo zikhupha intsingiselo yemithetho kwiiNgqungquthela ezingalindelanga. njengoko urhulumente echaza [[FLT] [FLT]], "igetalgracleary], "icandelo lomgaqo-siseko somthetho-siseko solawulo lwentlalo-mthetho kunye neminye imigaqo-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-onke-onke-onke]

Isitshixo sokuthatha indawo: [ ukubekwa komthetho kukwabelana. Ingqungquthela icebisa ize idlulise amatyala, kodwa uMongameli uyakwazi ukuwabetha, kwaye iinkundla zingawabetha okanye ziwachaze kwakhona.

Intsomi 2: Umongameli Unokuvakalisa Imfazwe Ngokuphandle

Mhlawumbi akukho ntsomi ingumphumo ongaphezulu kunenkolelo yokuba uMongameli, njengoMthetheli-mkhosi, angafaka imikhosi yase-U.S. ngokungeyonyani kwimfazwe. UmGaqo-siseko ucacile: Inqaku I, Icandelo 8 linika iBhunga amandla okuvakalisa imfazwe. UMongameli, phantsi kweQumrhu II, ngu "Mlawuli kwiNtloko yoMkhosi noMkhosi wamanzi" kodwa kuphela emva kweBhunga eligunyazisile imfazwe.

Isigqibo Semfazwe Sowe - 1973

Ekuvuselelweni kwemfazwe yaseVietnam i-— ukulandelela okuthi uMongameli uJohnson noNixon babendakanyeke kumsebenzi womkhosi owenziwe ixesha elide ngaphandle kokubhengezwa okusesikweni kwemfazwe — iConwarfere yaphumelela iSigqibo saMagunya emfazwe kuMongameli Nixon ’sveto. Lo mthetho ufuna uMongameli noMbutho [[FLT]] [[FLTY:1]] phambi kokuba kuqaliswe imikhosi exhobileyo kwimfazwe kwaye inike ingxelo kwiNkomkomkomfa phakathi kweeyure ezingama-48. Ngokubhekele, uyalela ukuba imikhosi imele ikhutshwe kwientsuku ezingama-30 (ngolwandiso lwamashumi amathathu) ngaphandle kokuba iingqungquthelanelo ziqhubeke nesenzo. Ngexesha lomthetho woMkhosi ubungqungquthela ubuqhube impikiswano bexanduvane nemfazwe, igxininisanisa ukuba amandla aqala ukuqalisa imfazwe.

Imbali Nemimandla Engwevu

Ngaphandle komgaqo-siseko, abaPhathiswa baye babandakanyeka kumsebenzi womkhosi ngaphandle kokubhengezwa okusemthethweni kwemfazwe i— iKorea, iVietnam, i-Iraq, kunye neLibya bayimizekelo ephawulekayo. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngelithi uMongameli ’ igunya elimiselwe njengeNkulumbuso-in-Chief livumela ukusetyenziswa okulinganiselweyo kwamandla ukuphembelela okanye ukukhusela ubomi baseMelika. Noko ke, ukusekwa kooTata kwawabeka ngamabomu amandla emfazweni kwiBhunga ukuqinisekisa ukuba isigqibo sokuya emfazweni siza kubonisa ukuthanda kwabantu, hayi ukucinga kwenkokeli enye. [[FLT:] uSiko loMgaqo-siseko weSizwe waseMelika [[FLT]], u-Aldquo; Nook'umba othe wahlula amagunya emfazwe phakathi kwemfazwe.

IQhosha elithatha indawo: kuphela iBhunga elinokungenisa imfazwe, kwaye uMongameli kufuneka ngokwemithetho-siseko afune imvume ekhoyo yokuququzelela umkhosi ngokuqhubekayo.

Intsomi 3: Isebe Eligwebayo Litolika Kuphela Imithetho

Abantu abaninzi bacinga ukuba abagwebi bangamatolika angenzi nto amela i — bafunda nje imimiselo kwaye bayisebenzisa kumatyala. Enyanisweni, ijaji iwulungisa ngokukhutheleyo umthetho ngohlolo lwezomthetho, imizekelo, kwanendalo eqhelekileyo. Ukucaciswa ngokwako sisenzo sokudala; ulwimi aluqhelekanga ngokucacileyo, kwaye abagwebi kufuneka bagqibe phakathi kokufunda okukhuphisanayo komthetho okanye ilungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko.

Ukuhlolwa Komthetho Njengokwenziwa Komgaqo-nkqubo

Xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo ivakalisa umthetho ongekho mgaqweni, awutoliki nje kuphela; uphelisa amasebe anyuliweyo e-’ umsebenzi. Izigqibo zophawu olunjengo Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ (1954), eyabulala ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke, kwaye ] Obergefell v. Hodges, eyayamkeleka ngokusemthethweni-kumazwe ngamazwe ngamazwe ngamazwe, yaba neziphumo ezinzulu. Le mimiselo ayizange ichaze nje umthetho okhoyo; yadala amalungelo amatsha nemiyalelo emitsha.

Amandla Engqalelo

Izigqibo zejaji zimisela imizekelo edityanisiweyo emele ilandelwe ziinkundla ezisezantsi. Le mfundiso, eyaziwa njenge stares decisis, inika ijaji umsebenzi wokwenza umthetho uhambelana nomthetho. Umzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo i’ i1973 yesigqibo [iiiNkundla esezantsi:] Roe v. Wade imisela ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuqhomfa, apho iBhunga nezindlu zowiso-mthetho zingenakukwazi ukubhukuqaqa umva iminyaka engama-50. Inkundla ngokwayo kamva iguqula eso sigqibo [iiiiiindawo eziqhubekayo] Dobs v. Women &ctrences .

IQhosha elithatha indawo: Ijudiary yenza okungaphezulu kakhulu kunokuchaza; ibumba umthetho ngokuhlola umGaqo-siseko, imizekelo, yaye ngamanye amaxesha izigqibo zenkqubo ezinamandla ezinokuguqula ubume belizwe obusemthethweni.

Intsomi 4: Isebe Elithathu Leopera Ngokupheleleyo

Udidi oluqhelekileyo lwesizwe olugqithiseleyo lulokuba amasebe amathathu asebenza kwisilos eyahlukeneyo. Enyanisweni, umGaqo-siseko udibanisa ngabom amandla awo kwinkqubo yeetsheki kunye nolungelelwaniso. Isebe ngalinye linoxanduva olwahlulweyo olufuna intsebenziswano kunye nolawulo lomnye. Injongo ayikokwahlulwa kodwa amandla anikiweyo.

Ingcebiso yeNkcubeko

IBhunga lilawula uqingqo-mali, liqinisekisa abamiselwe njengomongameli, kwaye liyakwazi ukukhupha uMongameli, uMongameli onguMongameli, kunye nabagwebi besizwe. ICampte ’os “advice kunye nemvume i” indima ithetha ukuba imigaqo-nkqubo engundoqo yolawulo neyomthetho ifuna ukuvunywa kweBhunga leNtlanganiso i-— ingxubusho yezopolitiko esoloko ibumba inkqubo. Ngaphezu koko, iBhunga lingenza uphando kwaye linyanze ubungqina kumagosa aphethe amasebe, njengoko kuqwalaselwe kwimibandela emininzi esukela kuMagategate ukuya kuJanuwari 6 kaJanuwari.

Isebe Eliphetheyo Likhangela Kwijelo

UMongameli umisa bonke abagwebi besizwe, kuquka abagwebi beNkundla Ephakamileyo, bephantsi koqinisekiso lweNkundla ePhakamileyo. Oku kunika impembelelo ehlala ihleli kwijaji ’ ukwenziwa kwemithetho. Ngaphezu koko, uMongameli uyakwazi ukuxolela abantu ababanjiweyo kulwaphulo-mthetho lukarhulumente, ngokunempumelelo abasemasebeni agwebayo. Kwakhona umphathi ophetheyo unembopheleleko yokunyanzela ukuba kunyanzeliswe imithetho yenkundla, kodwa ukuba uMongameli akavumi ukunyanzelisa umgwebo (isenzo esinqabileyo kodwa esinzulu), ijaji yejaji inezixhobo ezimbalwa zokunyanzelisa ukuthobela.

Ukuxilonga Amasebe Ooaval

Iinkundla zingawenza angabi namsebenzi umsebenzi wolawulo oluphezulu kunye nomthetho njengongagunyaziswanga. Ngamandla ovavanyo olugwebayo, ijaji isebenza njengenkokeli epheleleyo kwimida yamandla karhulumente. Olu manyano luqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linokongamela; ngalinye kufuneka libandakanye namanye ukuze liphumeze iinjongo zalo. Njengoko [[FLT: 0]USA.gov ichaza[, i- “ i-U.S.S. umGaqo-siseko umisela inkqubo yokuhlola kunye nokulungelelanisa ukuqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linye linamandla kakhulu. &rdqu;

IQhosha lokuthatha indawo: Amasebe awazimelenga; axhomekekena kwaye asoloko ejongana, enza inkqubo esebenzisanayo kwaye esoloko iphikisana.

Intsomi 5: Inkundla Ephakamileyo Yeyona Inamandla

Inikwe iNkundla i’ ubuchule bokubetha imithetho kunye nenkqubo yokubumba, abantu abaninzi bacinga ukuba yeyona sebe linamandla. Kodwa ijaji ibuthathaka kakhulu. Ayinawo amandla emali (inkxaso-mali yekomkhulu), akukho gunya lokuqinisekisa ukuba isebe limele liphumeze imithetho yalo, kwaye akukho gunya liqhelekileyo (izigwebo azimiselwanga zize zisebenzise amanyathelo obomi). INkundla ixhomekeke ngokupheleleyo kwamanye amasebe ukuhlonela nokuphumeza izigqibo zalo.

Ukhuseleko olunyanzelwayo

Ngo1832, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba i- igqibe kwelokuba i-Worcester v. Georgia imo yeGeorgia ayikwazanga ukunyanzela imithetho yayo kumazwe amaNdida aseMelika. UMongameli Andrew Jackson ucatshulwe ngokudumileyo njengethi, “ uJohn Marshall wenze isigqibo sakhe; ngoku makayinyanzelise. &lquo; Jackson akavumanga ukuphumeza ulawulo, yaye iNkungasayi kulawulanga mithetho. Esi siganeko sibonisa ukuxhomekeka kwejajicary &squoo; ukuxhomekeka kulawulo oluphezulu. Ngokufanayo, ngexesha lesikolo sihlala, uMongameli Eisenehange othumeli umele athumele imikhosi yesizwe kwiNkundla i&quo; [FLTBB] [FFF] ngaphandle kwesigqibo solawulo oluphantsi lwe-Rock, i-Roknston, i-Stomian, isalalkns.

Ulungiso lobeko lwephepha

IKhomishini iyakwazi ukumisela iNkundla i’ amandla ngokutshintsha ulawulo lwayo, itshintsha ubungakanani bayo (ngokuchanekileyo isuswe ukusuka kwisithandathu ukuya kwisixhenxe sobulungisa), okanye ikhuthaza utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko olulawulayo olulawula izigqibo zeNkundla. Isebe lezomthetho alinakuqalisa ukuthatha inyathelo; linokuphendula kuphela kumatyala aziswa phambi kwayo. Ngalo ndlela, xa iNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenzisa impembelelo ephawulekayo, alikho elona sebe linamandla kakhulu ngokwezimfanele. Isebe eliphetheyo liphethe onke amandla akhawulezileyo, ngokulawula umkhosi, ummiselo womthetho, kunye nolawulo olukhulu lwamazwe.

IQhosha eliphumayo: INkundla ePhakamileyo ixhomekeke kumphathi olawulayo ukunyanzelisa imithetho yayo kunye nengqungquthela ukuxhasa imisebenzi yayo, iyenze ibe yelona sebe libuthathaka kakhulu ngokwezigunya elikrwada.

Intsomi 6: Isebe Elilawulayo Liyasebenza

Abagxeki badla ngokuyilahla iKhonklathi njenge “do-ayinanto ” iziko elikhutshiwe kwi-grid-sleat nengxabano elwayo. Ngoxa imveliso yowiso-mthetho iye yancipha kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, le ntsomi ayiluhoyi uphuhliso olubalulekileyo lwembali kunye nendima yayo ebalulekileyo kwidemokhrasi ekhutshwayo. I-Griptlock ayisoloko iyisibonakaliso sokungaphumeleli; inokuba luphawu loMsunguli ’ uyilo oluzenzekelayo lokucotha utshintsho olukhulu kunye nengcebisiso.

Umthetho ohambayo obonisa ulawulo lwasezweni udlule phezu kwako nje ukwahlulwa

IBhunga liye lamisela imithetho yokuguqula nangaliphi na ixesha lokuququzelela ulawulo olunzulu. UMthetho waMalungelo oMsebenzi waMazwe oNyaka ka-1964 udluliswe ngevoti eyophulayo kwiNdlu yeeNtsimikazi, ukumelana nenkcaso esemazantsi. Lo Mthendeleko weAffordicustom Care udlulise ngaphandle kwevoti enye yeRiphabliki ekwindawo nganye kodwa yasinda kwiingxaki ezininzi ezisemthethweni kodwa ihlala iyilungu lembombo lononophetho lwezempilo yaseMelika. Kutshanje, ityala lesiseko soluntu lizinzile iLungcelele nangona ilwa ngokwahlukana okubukhali. Le mizekelo ibonisa ukuba iNgqungquthelane inokuba nempumelelo xa izibo ziphezulu kwaye inyanze inyathelo lokhokelo.

Indima yeeKomiti Nenkululeko

Inkqubo yowiso-mthetho icotha ngabom. IiBhili kufuneka zidlule kwiikomiti ezininzi, iikomiti ezincinci, iingxoxo zomgangatho, kunye neekomiti zengqungquthela ukunxibelelanisa umahluko phakathi kweNdlu yendlu neNqanam. Oku kuntsonkothileyo kukhuhlulo kukhuphe izicelo ezibhalwe ngokungxama okanye ezingaqondwanga kakuhle. Uninzi lwezinxeba (ngaphezu kwama-95% eBhunga ngalinye) aluphumeleli ukuba lube ngumthetho — okuyiyo, kungekhona ngesiphene. UJohn Adams wakha wathetha, “ akuzange kubekho idemokhrasi kodwa ayizange ifune ukuzibulala, i” imfuneko yokuhlola imigaqo yomthetho nxamnye nenkanuko ethandwayo. Ingqungqungquthelana, kunye nesakhiwo sayo somthetho we-procraliccoral, isebenza njenge-bhuki yesenzo sokungxamka.

Isitshixo sokunduluka: Ngelixesha iBhunga linokucotha kwaye lingalungi, liye labonakalisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo amandla alo okugqithisa umthetho omkhulu, kwaye indalo yalo ecacileyo luphawu, ayisiso isiphene senkqubo.

Intsomi 7: UmGaqo-siseko Uluxwebhu Olungaguquguqukiyo

Amanye amaMelika awuphatha umGaqo-siseko njengombhalo oqinileyo, ongatshintshiyo omele uchazwe ngokuchanekileyo njengoko abaxhasi besakhelo bewuqonda ngo1787. Enyanisweni, umGaqo-siseko yinkqubo ephilayo eye yaguquka ngenxa yokutshintshwa, ukucaciswa kwezomthetho, kunye nokuguqulelwa kobuchule obusebenzayo. AmaFrame ngokwawo aye alindele utshintsho ngokuquka inkqubo yokulungisa kwiGatya V nangokusebenzisa ulwimi olubanzi olunokusetyenziswa kwiimeko zexesha elizayo.

Inkqubo Yokulungiswa

Ukusukela ekuhlaziyweni, umGaqo-siseko utshintshiwe izihlandlo ezingama-77. Intengiso yokuqala elishumi (iBhili yamaLungelo) yongezwa phantse kwangoko ukukhusela inkululeko yabantu. Emva kokupheliswa kwabuphelisa ubukhoboka (13th), iqinisekisa ukhuseleko olulinganayo (14th), yalela ukukhanyela ivoti esekelwe kuhlanga (15th), isini (195), okanye irhafu yerhafu (24), kwaye yahlisa iminyaka yokuvota ukuya ku18 (26). Ukubuyiselwa kokurhoxiswa kobukhoboka kwabonisa ukushintshwa kweso societal kwaye kubonisa ukuguquka koxwebhu i’ uklo lokuguquka. Abaqululeki benza intethe yomGaqo-siseko (ngenze ii-31) zombini kwezindlu nezo zolawulo, kodwa okungagqibeki.

Ukucaciswa Kwesigwebo Ekuhambeni Kwexesha

INkundla ePhakamileyo i&squo; ukuqonda umGaqo-siseko kuye kwatshintsha ngendlela ephawulekayo. Ngenkulungwane ye-19, iNkundla ixhasa ucalucalulo lohlanga kwi- Prevery v. [1866] kwaye yajika inkqubo [[FLT:] Brown v].[FLT] v [FFLT], kodwa kamva yamkela umntu ngamnye [[FLT] [12] [56]] [12] [54]). Inkundla yaqala ibambelele kwelokuba ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo laliyilungu eliyilungu lemikhosi ([[12] [[FLTLT]]] i-evomvospread; intsingiselo yendlela esezantsi, [[&9], i-enye i-Elglopolass], i-ediact; uGenesalves, i-Esterol, i-Espect; uGenest siseko soluentureast , njengoko ichazayo

IQhosha lokuphuma: UmGaqo-siseko luxwebhu olunamandla, olwenzelwe ukutshintshwa nokucaciswa kwakhona, ukuqinisekisa ukusebenza kwawo kwiinkulungwane ngeenkulungwane.

Isiphelo: Isizathu Sokuba Zisuswe Iingcamango Eziyimibandela

Ukuqonda amasebe amathathu karhulumente asikokuqhelisela nje kwemfundo. Ulwazi oluchanileyo ngendlela amandla asasazwa ngayo nokuhlolwa kubalulekile kubandakanywa kwamagosa anyuliweyo, ukuvavanya iinkqubo, nokuba nenxaxheba ngokunentsingiselo kubomi babantu. Iingcamango ezingee-’ iindima ezinokuthi zikhokelele ekuzibekeni ecaleni umsindo — umzekelo, ukutyhola uMongameli weCandelo ’ ukungaphumeleli ukwenza okuthile, okanye ukulindele iNkundla Ephakamileyo ukucombulula iingxaki ezifuna unyango lwemithetho. Ngokususa ezi ngcamango zisixhenxe eziphosakeleyo ziqhelekileyo, sithatha indawo yokucacisa nokunceda abemi babe ngabameli abasebenzayo, abanolwazi, abavotiswayo, nabathathi-demo-demo-demo-deli.

Inkcubeko yenkqubo yaseMelika ilele kulungelelaniso lwayo: isebe lowiso-mthetho lenza imithetho, isebe eliphetheyo liyikhuphe, kwaye ijaji icacisa i-— kodwa nganye inentetho kweminye i-’ umsebenzi. Oku kuxhomekeka kwilungu lomntu ngamnye akuyosiphene okanye ukungaphumeleli; yindawo exhase iriphabliki ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Uluntu olusungulwe kakuhle lukuvavanya okupheleleyo kuwo onke amasebe amathathu, kwaye luqonda inyaniso ngendlela asebenza ngayo inyathelo lokuqala lokusebenzisa loo nto ngobulumko.