Ukhuphiswano oluqhubekayo phakathi kweWhite House, iCapitol Hill, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo ludla ngokuboniswa njengezenzo zoburhulumente. Izisongelo, i-gravity lomthetho, kunye nezomthetho ezilawulayo zijongwa njengemiqobo yokulawula. Kodwa olu ngquzulwano alusiso isiphendu kwinkqubo yamaMelika; luphawu lwayo oluchazayo. Abaseki be-United States, abangenele kwingcinga-lwazi yokukhanyiselwa nokugocaphuka kolawulo, bamise urhulumente onamandla ahlukeneyo, owenzela ukwabelana amagunya. Ukuzimela ngokwawo, iqulukwano, kunye namasebe ejaji eelwayo awacelelwa inkululeko, kodwa anyanzelela ukulwa kwenkululeko. Ngokunyanzela ukulwa kwelo, umGwamthendelelo okhusela amalungelo abantu kunye nokunyanzelisa ulawulo lwesizwe, elinye ilizwe kufuneka liqonde ulungele ulungele ulungeleniso lwawo lokuqala lwawo lokuqala.

Umqulu Omsinge Wenkululeko: Imvelaphi Nezakhiwo

Isakhiwo sikarhulumente wase-U.S. sisikhumbuzo sentanda-bulumko yezobupolitika yokukhanyiselwa. I-Baron de Montesquieu, kumsebenzi wakhe we-1748 Umoya woMthetho , yaphikisa ukuba inkululeko yezopolitiko ifuna ukwahlulwa komthetho, ulawulo, kunye namagunya omthetho. UJames Madison kunye nabanye abalawuli baguqulela le migaqo ecacileyo kwisiseko esiqinileyo kwiConvention yeMithetho-siseko ka1787. IPlanognome, emiselwe nguMadison, wayila isangqa esi sakhiwo esitsha, wabeka umqathango wemo wenkqubo elula yepalamente ehlangeneyo.

Igalelo Malenziwe Ukuze Kukhutshwe Inkcazo

Ingcaciso ecacileyo yenjongo yabafaki-feni ifumaneka kuFederal List No. 51, apho uMadison wabhala khona ngokudumileyo, "Ukuba abantu babezizithunywa zezulu, bekungayi kubakho rhulumente. Ukuba iingelosi zaziza kulawula abantu, kungekho lawulo lwangaphandle okanye lwangaphakathi kurhulumente, bekuya kuba yimfuneko." Ngenxa yokuba abantu bengezozithunywa zezulu, urhulumente kufuneka wahlulelwe. Uzimele geqe ngalinye likhuselekile ngokulinika "indlela yomgaqo-siseko neentshukumisa zobuqu zokuxhathisa ukungenelelana kwabanye." Oku kuthetha ukunikezela ngoMongameli ummandla wangaphandle, umqulu wesingxowa nokungaphili, nolawulo lwemali elishumi lobomi. Lo mlo siseko ucetyodwa lomthetho wacetyiswa ukuba ulwe nzima nayiphi nayiphi na into okanye isebe lorhulumente.

Imisebenzi Eqhekeziweyo

Kuyinto eqhelekileyo ukuthi indlu yowiso-mthetho yenza imithetho elawulayo, imithetho yegunya , imo yenene. UMongameli uthatha inxaxheba ekusebenzeni komthetho ngeveto. I-Gatya ithatha inxaxheba ekuqinisekisweni kwabaphathi bezolawulo nabagwebi abangohlukeneyo. I-judiary "iyenza" umthetho ngokucaciswa kwemimiselo kunye nomthetho, ukumisela okudibanisa onke amasebe. Le nkqubo inguMongameli inegalelo ekwabelaneni nomthetho nge-Probithi yezopolitiko.

Funda umbhalo opheleleyo woluhlu lweFederal No. 51 ngokugqitha kwiThala leeNcwadi leBhunga.

Amandla Omthetho: Injini Yomthetho

Inqaku I lomGaqo-siseko limisa isebe lowiso-mthetho, kwaye liyimeko yokuqala nende. Oku kubekwa kwalo kwayinjongo, kubonakalisa inkolelo yabasebenzi ukuba amandla okubhala imithetho yohlanga ayengundoqo kwaye elona libalulekileyo kwaye lifuna unyanzelo olucokisekileyo. IBhunga liyiko lowiso-mthetho, elahlulwe kwiNdlu yabameli (umelo loMgaqo-siseko, unyulwa iminyaka emibini) kunye neCanternal (umelo olulingana nomelo lombuso, olusebenza ngokweemfuno-nyaka emithandathu). Eli candelo langaphakathi laliyimfunobuchule bokuzinzisa, kodwa kwakhona lisebenza ukuyila uvavanyo lwangaphakathi kwindlu yowiso mthetho.

Iqumrhu Lenkululeko Yomthetho

Inkululeko yeBhunga ixhomekeke kumalungiselelo angundoqo amaninzi omgaqo-siseko. Intetho okanye iNteko-siseko (Icandelo lesi-6) ikhusela amalungu eNgqungquthela ekubanjisweni okanye ekumangalelweni kwemiba enxulumene nomsebenzi wawo wowiso-mthetho, iqinisekisa ukuba abanakoyikiswa yigunya eliphetheyo okanye isalathisi. Amandla ePurse (IsiCebo, iCandelo 9) ivakalisa ukuba "Akukho Mali iya kukhutshwa kuMphathi-mali, kodwa kwiConstance of Appropries enziwe nguMthetho." Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba isebe eliphetheyo lixhomekeke kwiBhunga lomsebenzi nezokuqala. Ngaphandle kwezi ndawo zokwakha, umgangatho wamandla omthetho umkhulu, kuquka amandla okuhlawula irhafu, ukuboleka imali, ukubhengeza intengiselwano yezoshishino yezo zezoshishino, kunye nemikhosi yemikhosi.

Urhwebo LukaClaus Nolawulo Olusandisileyo

Ukutolikwa kweCommerce Claus ([FLT: 1]), iCandelo lesi-8, u-Claus 3) ibingumqhubi omkhulu wegunya lesizwe kubomi bezoqoqosho belizwe. Kwimeko ezifana Mcloch v. Maryland [1819], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseka imfundiso yamandla acacileyo, elawula ukuba iBhunga linokuyila ibhanki yesizwe nangona lingabalwanga ngokucacileyo kuMgaqo-siseko wesizwe, logama nje isebenze isiphelo esisemthethweni kumda wamandla orhulumente. Lo mgaqo, udityaniswe nokufundwa okubanzi koMkhosi kaClaslas [FLT] [FLD] [FLD] [FFF:3] [12], uvumela iBhunganiso olukhulu lwesizwe, ukuba lusebenze kwi-ondrejini, loshishino-onele, loshishino lwesizwe, ukukhuphiniselwa kwegunya lomthetho lomthetho lomthetho lomthetho lomthetho lomthetho lomthetho lomthetho.

[[UMTL:0] Funda isishwankathelo esipheleleyo sikaMcCulloch v. Maryland kwi-Oyez.

Izisongelo Zanamhlanje Zenkululeko Yomthetho

Ngeli xesha iBhunga "lokuqala," ukuzimela kwalo okuqinileyo kujongene nocelomngeni olungaguquguqukiyo. Unyuko lwephondo lolawulo lubandakanya ukuphathisa amaqumrhu anegunya elibalulekileyo elingumthetho, utyekelo abagxeki abathi baphikisa imfundiso engagunyaziyo kunye namandla owiso-mthetho kumphathi olawulayo. Iinkqubo zedemokhrasi kwiBhunga zichatshazelwa kukuhlaziywa kwe-demokhrasi, impembelelo yemali ecwangcisiweyo kwezobupolitika, kunye noqheliso lwemithetho ye-gerrymanniting, oludla ngokugquma ikhubaza ii-ccunts kwintlalo yoqobo yokruphiso lwenyani. Ukukhupha umsebenzi wokuzinziswa kwemithetho-mthetho njengesebe elizimeleyo nesebe elilinganayo lingucelomngeni kulawulo lwaseMelika namhlanje.

Amandla olawulo: Amandla nesenzo

Inqaku II lomGaqo-siseko liqala ngegalelo elilula elingumxholo: "UMmandla Alawulayo aza kunikwa uMongameli wase-United States of America". Esi sigwebo sinye singumthombo wamandla amakhulu olungiselelo. Ngokungafaniyo neBhunga elisiSikomyunithi elisiSiko, umphathi onegunya liyiofisi yeqela, okwaziyo ukwenza isigqibo esikhawulezileyo nenyathelo eligqibele. Njengoko uAlexander Hamilton waphikisa kwi-Federalist No. 70, "Umphathi-ogxampyutha ngumntu ophambili kwinkcazelo karhulumente olungileyo." UMongameli ubekwe ngokukhethekileyo ukuba asebenze ngenxa yohlanga lwemicimbi yasemzini, kwaye aqinisekise ukuphunyezwa okuthembekileyo kwemithetho.

Ulawulo Olumanyeneyo Nemida Yalo

Ingcamango yesigqeba esilawulayo iyavuma ukuba uMongameli unegunya elipheleleyo kwisebe eliphetheyo, kuquka namandla okususa amagosa angaphantsi. Le ngcamango iqhube ukwanda kwamandla omongameli kule mihla. UMongameli usebenzisa iveto njengesixhobo esinamandla sowiso-mthetho, uyalela imikhosi exhobileyo njengeNkulumbuso kwiChiefa, intlanganiso (ngemvume yeCante), kwaye unika imvume yokufumana ii-Reprievwable kunye nokuxolela. Noko ke, la mandla awaphelelanga. UMongameli uGcingela u-Mongameli u-Candelo ubopha ngokucacileyo kwimithetho edluliselwe yiBhunga, elinganisela amandla omphathi-mthetho okungakhathaleli okanye ukungathobeki kwemithetho.

Umlinganiselo Wokugaleleka: Imida Ecacileyo

Imida yamandla olawulo lwamandla yaboniswa ngamandla umgangatho ophezulu wesiqendu selizwe. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho. Uluvo lweNkundla iHugo Black lwathi uMongameli "umele ukuba aphume kwisenzo soMkhosi weKholamsi okanye kumGaqo-siseko." ekubeni iBhunga lanikela ezinye iindlela zokulwa iziphumo zokulwa. Umongameli uRobert uVugq'ibhedu wasungula uluvo lweNkulwano lweNkundla. UJajikisho lukaHugo Black lwachaza ukuba amandla kaMongameli "amele aphumele kwisenzo soMgaqo-siseko okanye kumGaqo-siseko ngokwawo." ekubeni iBhunga loMphathiswano yayino ezinye iindlela zokuqhubana ngetyala, uMongameli uRobert Robert Jackson akakwazi ukwenzanga ngokungenamdlamngeni.

[[UMTL: 0] Funda isishwankathelo esipheleleyo sephepha lobuncinane iTube Co. v. Sawyer kwi Oyez[[FLT: 1].

Ukwanda Kwamandla Alawulayo

Oomongameli bale mihla baye balawula ngokukhula ngemiyalelo yezolawulo, izibhengezo, kunye nemisebenzi. Ngeli xesha ezi zizixhobo ezisebenzayo zokulawula isebe eliphetheyo, maxa wambi ziye zasetyenziselwa ukumisela iinjongo ezibanzi zenkqubo ezithi ngokunokwenzeka zingenelele kwingqungquthela yemithetho-siseko. Ukwanda kwe-ofisi yezolawulo---atmosferation enjenge-EPA yokhuseleko lwemekobume (Epa) kunye neSebe leSebe leNtlalo-o-ocessicals, i-ocessical, i-ographics, i-ofisi ye-ofisi, kunye nemisebenzi yezomthetho. Le ntlanganiselwano yamandla phakathi kwabameli iphakamisa imibuzo esisiseko yokwahlulwa ngokwahlukana kwamandla nokulondolo lweziphathiswa kwezolawulo olunentsingiselo kwi-ontathsuphelo-Ang.

Amandla Okugweba: Ukutolika Nokuphela

Inqaku III lomGaqo-siseko limisa isebe elilawulayo. Lifutshane kakhulu kumanqaku amathathu adala amasebe, elikhokelela kuHamilton ukubiza ijaji ngokuthi isebe "lempuma eyingozi" kuFederal List No. 78. Alilawuli ikrele okanye ingxowa-mali. Kodwa amandla ayo anzulu. Inkululeko yejaji yeyona nto ibalulekileyo, yenkundla enokubotshelelwa okanye ilawulwe lisebe elingenakukwazi ukumelana ngokusesikweni nempikiswano okanye ukukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye norhulumente ochukumileyo.

Ubomi Nokhuseleko Lokuthengiswa Kobomi: Isini Qua

Iintsika ezimbini zokuzimela geqe zizinto ezifanelekileyo ngexesha "lokuziphatha okuhle" nokwalela ekunciphiseni imivuzo yabagwebi. Oku kuthintelwa kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika kuvumela abagwebi borhulumente ukuba balawule ngokusekelwe kwindlela abawuchaza ngayo umthetho nomGaqo-siseko, kwanaxa izigqibo zabo zingathandwa kuninzi, uMongameli, okanye iBhunga. Olu khuselo luyimfuneko kumsebenzi wohlolo-mthetho. Umgwebi ojongene nonyulo okanye ukhuthuzo olusikwe kunokwenzeka ukuba anganikezeli myalelo ophazamisana neenjongo zezobupolitika.

IMarbury v. Madison kunye neNjongo yezeMigaqo

Esona sixhobo sinamandla kwizixhobo zokulawula ngamandla kukuvakalisa izenzo zeBhunga kunye noMongameli ongekho mgaqo-siseko. Eli gunya alichazwanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko. Lasekwa nguMgwebi omkhulu uJohn Marshall kwimeko yophawu olubonakalayo Marbury v. Eli gunya linguMadison [1803]. Ingqiqo kaMarshall yaba negunya elicacileyo: "Iliqinisiweyo iphondo nomsebenzi wesebe lejajiko-caca ukuze ichaze oko umthetho unjalo" Ukuba umthetho uyangqubana nomGaqo-siseko, abagwebi kufuneka balandele umGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya lenza iNkundla eliPhakamileyo [iNkumiso 1] [1803] [1] igosa epheleleyo intsingiselo yentsingiselo, indima ebekwa ngumsebenzi kwinkalo yobomi bezobupolitika baseMerika.

[[FLT: 0] Funda isishwankathelo esipheleleyo se Marbury v. Madison kwi Oyez[[FL:1].

Ubunzima Bokuphikisa

Ukuzimela ngokwamagunya ejaji kudala inkxwaleko ngemigaqo yedemokhrasi. "Iimeko zolawulo-mthetho," igama eliqanjwe ngumphengululi ongokwasemthethweni u-Alexander Bickel, libhekisela kwisibakala sokuba abagwebi abangakhethwanga bangayibhukuqa imithetho edluliswa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho ezinyuliweyo zedemokhrasi. Oku akusiko ukuphambanisa kodwa kungumqondiso wenkqubo yenkqubo yezomgaqo-siseko elungiselelwe ukukhusela amalungelo asisiseko ekucinezeleni kwabaninzi. Ucelomngeni lwejajidicariary kukusebenzisa eli gunya elikhulu ngokuzibamba, nzulu indima yamasebe anyuliweyo ngexa kukhuselwe izibo ezingundoqo zomGaqo-siseko. Inkqubo yokuzimela yabagwebi iye yaba yimfazwe enzima ngenxa yokuba izibambiso-zixhobo ezishushu ngenxa yokutolika komGatho-siseko.

Inkqubo yokuvala: Iindlela kunye nolungelelwano olusebenzayo

Inkcubeko yokwenene yokwahlula amagunya eMelika ixhomekeke kukhangelo nolungelelwano oludibanisa amasebe. Isebe ngalinye linendlela yokuzikhusela nokuxhathisa ukuphambana kwezinye. Oku kudibanisa inkqubo yolawulo olunamandla nolusoloko lunengxabano efuna uxoxiso nolalanisa.

Inkqubo Yokudibana: Isifundo Setyala Ngokusebenzisana

Inkqubo yokumisela abagwebi besizwe kunye namagosa aphezulu aphezulu abeke izikhundla eziphezulu ngumzekeliso ogqibeleleyo wamagunya adityanisiweyo. UMongameli uhlahlela, enze umsebenzi ophezulu kuphela. IBhunga linika "Inkonzo neNgqungquthela" kwaye kufuneka liqinisekise ukuba umongameli usebenza njengovavanyo lwegunya lowiso-mthetho. Lo mdabulo uqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe lilawulayo eliququzelelayo ityala okanye isebe eliphetheyo.

Isiqinisekiso: Uphando Olupheleleyo

IKhomishini inegunya elipheleleyo phezu koMongameli nabagwebi besizwe: ukunyanzelisa. Indlu yabameli iphethe ekuphela kwegunya lokukhupha (ukuchasa), kwaye iNdlu yeNdlu yeNkulumbuso inegunya lokuzama ukuzama ukugunyazisa nokususa amagosa eofisi. Eli gunya liqinisekisa ukuba akukho gosa elinyuliweyo elingaphezulu komthetho. Kunzima ngabom ukuqhelisela, kufuna uvotelo oluninzi eNdlwaneni kunye nobuninzi besithathu esiphezulu kwiNdlulo, ukuqinisekisa ukuba lisetyenziselwa kuphela ityala elinzima: "Treant, Sircign, okanye ezinye izigebetho eziphezulu kunye neMisdegames" olu luhlu oluphezulu lokukhusela umgangatho omkhulu ekususweni kwezopolitiko ngenxa yokungavisiswa okulula.

Ulawulo Loqingqo - mali Namandla Okuthenga

Amandla esipakethe kukuhlola okunamandla kwemithetho-mthetho kumphathi-mikhosi. Akukho mthetho, kumiselo, okanye isenzo solawulo oluphezulu esinokuthatyathwa ukuba iNgqungquthela ayivumi ukuyixhasa. Oku kunika iCongress amandla abalulekileyo okuxhobisa uphatho loMongameli. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, uMongameli angasebenzisa iveto ukubumba umthetho, adala umjikelezo wengxoxo kunye nokulalanisa okusemgangathweni kwinkqubo yokwenza umthetho. Isisongelo sokuvala urhulumente, xa iBhunga lisilela ukudlulisa iindleko zomnxeba, igxininisa ukudlala okuphezulu kwala mandla ahlukeneyo.

Ingxubusho yezeejaji njengemida yomgaqo-siseko

Amandla ejaji alawulayo okuvakalisa imithetho kunye nezenzo ezingekho mgaqweni zisebenza njengomda osisiseko kwamanye amasebe. Ngelixesha iBhunga kunye noMongameli benokuthi banyathele imida yegunya labo, iinkundla zinegama lokugqibela ngentsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko. Oku kunyanzela amasebe ezobupolitika ukuba enze ngokwesiseko somgaqo-siseko, okanye ubuncinane ajonge indlela iinkundla eziza kuzichaza ngayo izenzo zazo. Impembelelo ayisoloko ingumqobo wegunya lawo; amasebe asoloko esebenzisana, kodwa amandla okuhlola isimilo sawo ngokomgaqo-siseko, akhuthaza ukufaneleka komgaqo-siseko.

Ubuchule Bokuhlala Ukhululekile

Ukuzimela ngokwawo kwamasebe owiso-mthetho, aphetheyo, nagwebo kungunobangela ophambili wolawulo lomgaqo-siseko waseMerika. Yinkqubo eyakhelwe kungengakuthembana, kodwa kuqikelelo olusengqiqweni lokuba amandla amele avavanywe ngamandla. Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya akungomatshini ozilawulayo; kuxhomekeke ngokupheleleyo kwiphulo, kwingqibelelo, nasekuphaphelweni kwabantu kwisebe ngalinye, yaye ekugqibeleni, kubemi abanolwazi kunye nabathembisiweyo.

Xa elinye isebe ligunyazisa igunya lalo kwelinye, -- xa iKhomishini ithumela igunya layo lokwenza umthetho ngaphandle kwemilinganiselo eyaneleyo, xa uMongameli esebenza ngaphandle kogunyaziso lwemithetho, okanye xa ijaji ikhetha ukuma kamnandi kumasebe ezobupolitika ($iiincam ezithe ngcembe. Inkqubo ixhomekeke ekukhubekeni kwenkululeko. Abafundi nabafundisi, ukuqonda olu kwakhiwa kwale zakhiwo kubalulekile. Ichaza iingxabano esizibonayo ezindabeni, isiseko sengxoxo yethu yezopolitiko, namandla ahlalayo eMgaqo-siseko ocetyelwe ukukhusela inkululeko ngokulawula ngabom. Impilo yeRiphabliki ixhomekeke ekulondolozeni amandla azimeleyo eBhunga, uLawulo, uLawulo, ulawulo, kunye neeNkundla zeNkundla.

Esi sakhiwo, esamiselwa ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini ezidlulileyo, sihlala singumyalelo obalulekileyo wokuhamba ngenqanawa kwimingeni yanamhlanje. Ngokufunda nokukhusela ukwahlukana kwamagunya, siphakamisa ingqiqo engundoqo yomseki: ukhuseleko oluqinisekileyo ekuchaseni ingcinezelo okanye urhulumente omanyeneyo asiyonkokeli enye, kodwa sisixokelelwano samaqumrhu ahlukeneyo asabelana ngamagunya, ngalinye lizimele lizimele, kwaye linentshukumisa yokuhlola, iimfuno zamanye. Umlondolozi opheleleyo wale nkululeko yokwakha uxhomekeke kuwonke wonke kwimigaqo yomGaqo-siseko.