Ukudibana kwemithetho elawulayo nempahla zamakhaya ezikhutshwa kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho elawulayo kuvela kumthetho osemthethweni ongqongqo. Kwelinye icala kumele kubekho umgaqo-siseko owenziwe ixesha elide okhusela amalungelo angekho mthethweni, osekelwe kwiSindululo seshumi elinesine soLawulo olugqwethekileyo. Kwelinye icala abantu bafuna ukuphendula nokuhlawula ukuphulwa kwemithetho-siseko ngexesha lolwaphulo-mthetho, ukutshutshiswa, okanye ukuvalelwa. Lo mthetho ufuna ukulungelelanisa ulawulo olufanelekileyo lomntu ngoxa uqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo aqinisekiswe nguMgaqo-siseko awabi nangaqinisekwanga zizithembiso. Kwiminyaka eliqela edluleyo, iinkundla, iiBhunganethi, kunye nabaphengululi abasemthethweni baye balungisa ulungelelaniso olukhoyo, ukulungiswa kwemfundiso, kunye nokuvalelwa kwetyala, besenza ummandla onamandla nowongaphicothanga nowe-mthetho womthetho-mo-mthetho-siseko.

Ukuqonda Umanyano Lwaseburhulumenteni

Ukhuseleko olungokwamandla lwesizwe luyi-tentine esisiseko ye-Americanism. Ivala abantu ngabanye ekumangaleleni ityala ngaphandle kwemvume karhulumente, nokuba kusenkundleni karhulumente okanye kwiimeko ezininzi, kwinkundla yephondo. Isiseko seli xesha sikwiNkundla yeshumi elinesibhozo leMpulezelo, sigunyaziswe ngo1795, kwaye ngokwaso sasiyimpendulo engqalileyo kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo [iChoolm v. Georgia, 2 U.S 419 (1793). [[FLT:]] ICHM [[FLT]], eyayiyimpendulo engqalileyo kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakakhulu leNkundla [FLT]], ivumela abemi bobuqu ukuba bavumele imo yelizwe kwinkundla yolawulo lwesizwe, ibangela ukubuyiselwa kwe-gromenti ye-grati ye-globalm.

Umbhalo notoliko lweSindululo seshumi Nenye

IA111 Demendment inikela oku: “Nangona amandla eMithetho yezeMigaqo e-United States engazukuthathwa njengokwandisa nayiphi na imfanelo esemthethweni okanye elinganayo, eqaliswe okanye emangalelwe nxamnye nomnye we-United States yi-Vanizers yelinye iLizwe, okanye yi-Citizens okanye yiMicimbi yeLizwe ngalinye.” Nangona umbhalo ubonakala ulinganiselweyo ukuba ufanele uhambelwe ngabemi abangaphandle kwesizwe, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo i-Onke i-Onketho i-mthetho i-ethe yandisa umgaqo wokuba i-mendelo ye-mende ye-fasties, ingenayo ngokokuchazwa kakuhle. [[FLT:] V[FT] V[FF1][2001], i-Proutencer.[5], i-UPronges]

Umlinganiselo woMgaqo-nkqubo: Iimeko zikaRhulumente

Ukuzikhusela okulawulayo akugubungeleli nje kuphela imeko ngokwayo kodwa kwandisa nakumasebe karhulumente athathwa njenge “izixhobo zikarhulumente.” Ukuqinisekisa ukuba into ekhoyo iyafaneleka njengengalo karhulumente kubandakanya ukuhlalutya oothunywashe njengetyala lemali likarhulumente lomgwebo kunye nomgangatho wokulawula kwemeko. Noko ke, ukuthintelwa akuwakhuseli ngokobuqu amagosa athile. Amagosa asekuhlaleni akwimeko yawo [[FLT:]] amagosa akwigunya lawo [[FLT: 0]] amandla ombuso asoloko ephathwa njengempahla echaphazalelwe kwilizwe ngokwalo kwaye athintelwa. Ngokwahlukileyo, ngokuchasene namagunya awo amagosa azimeleyo.

Isuti Yabanye Abantu Kummandla Wecawa Ekwakugwetyelwa Kuwo

Iimpahla zamakhaya ezinxulumene namalungelo olwaphulo-mthetho zibandakanya ukuthethwa phantsi kwe- 42 U.S. . . . . ., okuvumela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe kunye namagosa karhulumente wasekuhlaleni ngenxa yokwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko okanye umthetho. Oku kuthethwa okuqhelekileyo kuvela phantsi kolawulo Brivens v. Ama-Entect angaziwayo[, 403], u-U.S 388 (1971], okunika isicombululo esifanayo nxamnye nabaphathi borhulumente. Oku kuthetha umlinganiselo omninzi wokuziphatha okubi, kuquka amandla agqithisileyo ngexesha lokubanjwa, ukupheliswa okuphosakeleyo, ukupheliswa okungekho mthethweni, ukusetyenziswa ngomthetho, nokungakhathalelwangagunyaziswanga, nokungakhathalelwangawenzinziyo kwiimfuno zeemfuno zee-ezo zezo zezo zonyango.

Iintlobo Ezibalaseleyo Zobulungisa Bezaphuli - mthetho Zibaliswa

  • [[FLT: 0] Umkhosi we-'Active' ongenakusetyenziswa'''':[[FLT'] uthelekisa phantsi koMphetho-mva-mva wesine ukwenzela ukubanjwa kogonyamelo ngokungekho ngqiqweni okanye ukusetyenziswa kwamandla abulalayo. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386 (1999), imisele ukuba ezo ngxelo zimele zihlolwe phantsi komgangatho ofanelekileyo.
  • [[FLT: 0] Abavalelwe ngokumanyumnyezi kunye nokutshutshiswa okungalawulekiyo: Abantu ababanjwa ngaphandle kwesizathu okanye abagwetywa ngenjongo embi bangagwetywa phantsi konyaka ka1998. Inkundla ekwi -Thompson v. Clark, 596 U.S.__222), icacisa iziqalelo eziyimfuneko ukusungula ityala elinobubi.
  • Uphatho Oluphosakeleyo kunye nongquzulwano lobundlobongela: ukungaphumeleli ngabatshutshisi ukutyhila ubungqina bocalulo, njengoko bufunwa Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83], kungakhokelela kwityala loluntu ukuba iziphumo zibangelwa kukuchanabeka okuphosakeleyo.
  • Isigqibo sokugquma i- Abantu abangenakusetyenziswa bangazizisa iintengiso phantsi koMphetho-mda wesibhozo wesohlwayo senkohlakalo nesothuso esingaqhelekanga, kuquka ukungakhathalelwa kakuhle kwezamayeza, iimeko ezingacocekanga, nokusetyenziswa kakhulu kokuvalelwa uwedwa.
  • Isibhengezo esisesikweni kunye neNkcubeko yoGunyazo: Ukukhusela uClause olwenziwe ngokusekelwe kuhlanga okanye kwezinye iimpawu ezikhuselweyo zingabangela ukunyuka kwempahla zasekuhlaleni, ngokufuthi kuxhomekeke kubungqina obungokwemibaliso bocalulo.

Umgama: Ukulungelelanisa uBukhosi nokuXhotyiswa

Uxanduva olusemgangathweni olungokwasemthethweni luphakama xa ummangalelwa oqhelekileyo ezama ukumangalela urhulumente okanye amagosa akhe ngenxa yomonakalo ovela kwizenzo zomthetho. Amazwe asoloko ecela ukhuseleko lobungangamsha ukuba luwagxothe amatyala anjalo, eqinisekisa ukuba akanakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yawo. Noko ke, iimpahla ezininzi ezihlukeneyo ezimiselwe kakuhle kunye nezixhobo zemfundiso zivumela iisuti ezithile zasekuhlaleni ukuba ziqhubeke, kwananabadlali bakarhulumente.

Imfundiso [[FT:0] Exte intlukwano encinci[[FLT: 1]

Enye yezona zibalulekileyo yi . Ex e Young imfundiso, ebizwa emva kwetyala leNkundla Ephakamileyo yowewaka ka-1908 inxenye eYona [[FLT:], 209 U.S (1908). Le mfundiso ivumela iisuti kumagosa orhulumente, kwimisebenzi yawo esemthethweni, ukugunyazisa ukuphulwa kwemithetho yequmrhuluneli yetyala. Iphulo elingomthetho lithetha ukuba igosa umthetho ochasene nomthetho ulawulo oluchaseneyo nomthetho ukhutshwe igunya kwaye unokuthi ukhutshwe ukhangelo olufuna uncedo. Ngelixesha [FLDT:] Inxenye encinane [FTYPT] ayivumeli ukusetyenziswa kwemali ekhoyo kwezomthetho, imvume yokurhwaqeqeshiwe ngenxa yezo, i-'empec'ements'emo-motion.

Ukupheliswa kokuTshazwa koMlawuli

Enye into engaqhelekanga ivela xa iNkundla ejongene nokuzikhusela ngokulula kwesizwe ngokusemthethweni. Inkundla ePhakamileyo, iSeminole Fribe yaseFlorida v. Florida, 517 U.S.1996), ibambe ukuba iBhunga lisenokulwa nenkqubo yokhuseleko lombuso kuphela xa lisebenzisa amandla alo asebenzayo ngaphantsi kwecandelo 5 loMgaqo-mbo we-1495. Oku kuthetha ukuba imithetho emininzi yequmrhu efuna ukubeka ityala kumalungelo ekwalawulweni. [AFFF:] [2] [awugunyazwe], i-CIvil [act:[3] xa i-Act:[3] [3] [3]

Ilizwe

Kwakhona amazwana asenokuwuphazamisa ngokuzithandela ukhuseleko lwawo olulawulayo, mhlawumbi ngomthetho okanye ngokuvuma ukuhambisana nemeko ethile. Amaphondo amaninzi aye enza izenzo ezivumela abantu ukuba bamangalelwe kwiimeko ezilinganiselweyo, bafakelwe iikeyiko zomonakalo neemfuno ezithile ezikhethekileyo. Kwimeko yezobulungisa, amanye amaphondo aye amisela imimiselo yokuba ukukhusela ukukhusela ukuchana kwemiqathango ethile, njengokuvalelwa entolongweni okuphosakeleyo, enika abantu indlela eqingqiweyo yokuhlawula.

Indima Yokungahambelani

Nangona yahlukile kukhuseleko lwezolawulo olulawulayo, ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo lusoloko luphakathi kweesuti zomthetho wobugqwirha. Ukuthintelwa okufanelekileyo kukhusela amagosa karhulumente kwityala lomonakalo wamakhaya ngaphandle kokuba ihambo yabo yaphulwa “ngokucacileyo okanye amalungelo omgaqo-siseko apho umntu ofanelekileyo ebeya kuba wawazi" ( Hargerd[], ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo lukhusela amagosa e-U.S. 800 (19982). Oku kukhuselo kufumaneka ukuba abaphathi-majoni afanele akhusele amagosa aziphatha ngendlela engafanelekanga, lodwa, lo gama lifuna ukusetyenziswa. Abagxeki-mthetho baphikisa ukusetyenziswa kwezokuziphatha okubi, lobugciso oluqhelekileyo.

IFrametrists: Icandelo 1983 neBivens

42 U.S.C. 76 1983 kunye neSizwe

Icandelo 1983 lisisithuthi esiphambili sokuzisa izityholo zamalungelo abantu ngokuchasene norhulumente namagosa asekuhlaleni. Sinika unobangela wesenzo “sokuncitshiswa kwawo nawaphi na amalungelo, amalungelo, okanye ukugonywa okukhuselwe nguMgaqo-siseko kunye nemithetho” phantsi kombala womthetho wesizwe. Noko ke, iisuti ezilawulayo zokuzikhusela zicathulo ezichasene namazwe ngokwazo phantsi konyaka ka-1998 1983. INkundla ePhakamileyo . ISebe laseMichigan laMalipolisa , 491], i-US 58 (19989), ikholelwa ukuba “aintsonsonsons" azithobe zinokufaneleka ngaphantsi kwe-1964. Oku kuthetha ukuba igosagosagosa ngamnye, imeko-mali ihlala ikhuselwe ngokwemo-omo-mo-yo. Umonakalomo woko kufuneka ulwe kwi-omatilotime okanye i-obhishopu esebenzayo.

Izenzo zeBhayisekile namagosa

Amagosa aseburhulumenteni abandakanyeke kubulungisa bolwaphulo-mthetho, i- iSicombululo sinika unobangela othe ngqo wesenzo phantsi komGaqo-siseko. Ngokungafaniyo no-1998, i-Bivens[ iisuti azizo izidalwa zomthetho kodwa zichazwe ngokwezomthetho. INkuNkundla ePhakamileyo ibekelwe umda othe kratya, ukwandisa [[FLT:] [FLT]] [FLT] [5] unyango, ukungavumi ukuqaphela imeko entsha ( izizigrale. v[FLT]], [5], u-US.U-US.2017])

Inkqubela Yakutshanje Nezigqibo ZeNkundla Ephakamileyo

Ukumiswa kwemithetho ekudibaneni kwempahla yokhuseleko oluzimeleyo neyamatyala angokwasemthethweni kuye kwabunjwa zizigqibo eziliqela eziphawulekayo kwiminyaka engamashumi amabini edluleyo. Le mithetho iye yazicacisa yaza yazidida iingcaciso ezikhoyo zamaxhoba olwaphulo-mthetho.

Ukusetyenziswa Kwamagosa Entolongo Karhulumente

Ku Umthetho woTshintsho lweziNguqu (PLRA), iNkundla ePhakamileyo isoloko iqinisa imilinganiselo yokukhusela ulawulo lobukhosi kumazwe. Umzekelo, i-Coleman v. uTollefson, 575 U.S. 532], iNkundla isebenzisa ngokuqinileyo iimfuno zokhuseleko lwamabanjwa ezizisa amalungelo e-fatyiweyo, kuquka nemfuneko yokuba ulawulo oluqhelekileyo luzinzisa izicoci phambi kwegso.

Ulawulo lwengingqi yeRhulumente kunye ne-injini ye-injini

INkundla ivavanye nokuba ngaba iintsimbi zokhuselo-mthetho lwesizwe zifuna ukuchanabeka kumonakalo obangelwa kukuphengulula okungekho mthethweni okanye ukuxhuzula. Alden v.Maine, 577 U.S. 706 (1999), iNkundla yaqinisekisa kwakhona ukuba ukuthintelwa kweliso kuyasebenza kwinkundla yephondo nakwinkundla karhulumente, kwanakuko nakwezo zithethwa phantsi komthetho wezwe. Oku kuthetha ukuba abathathi-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-the-thyithi ye-proteat [[12 1983] kwinkundla karhulumente. Isigqibo savala ngokuphumelelayo umngxuma-goqo wokusetyenziswa kwelungu likarhulumente ukuba lingene kumazwe azimeleyo ngokokuthethwa ngokuthe ngqo.

Utyekelo Lweenkundla Ezisezantsi Zakutshanje

Kwiintendelezo ezisezantsi zemali, bekukho ukuvunywa okukhulayo kwemfuneko yokulungelelanisa ukuthintelwa nokubekwa ityala. Ezinye iinkundla zesiphaluka bezikulungele ukufumana ukuba amaphondo anokuthintelwa ngemithetho yawo okanye ukuba exparete Young [ imfundiso ivumela isiqabu esivunyiweyo nxamnye namapolisa asekuhlaleni okanye ihambo evakalala yabatshutshisi. Iinkundla ezibandakanya ukubanjwa kwabantu ngexesha lokulwa, njengabo balandela ukubulawa kukaGeorge Floyd, ziye zavavanya le mida, ngenkundla ekhupha imimiselo yokuqala nxamnye namagosa mbuso ngoxa ilondoloza ukulondolozwa kwemeko yelizwe ngokwayo.

Utshintsho Olusemthethweni Kumgangatho WeRhulumente

Amaphondo amaninzi aye amisela utshintsho oluthi ngokwenxalenye lulwenzele ukhuseleko lwezilawuli zezaphuli-mthetho ezichaseneyo nesuti zomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Umzekelo, uMthetho waseNew York wamaGunya akwiPublic [ wokhuselo lwezithintelo ezithile kumagunya karhulumente kawonke wonke, ngelixesha i- iGovernments Ithetars Act ivumela iisuts ukuba ziphawule iimfuno ezithile. Olu tshintsho lusoloko lulinganiselwe ngemimiselo emifutshane yomonakalo ethile echasene namagunya kawonke, kodwa lumele indlela yokunikela iimpendulo ngaphandle kokuzikhusela okungagqibekanga.

Ukucel ’ Umngeni Utshintsho Lobulungisa Olwesaphula Umthetho

Uxanduva oluqhubekayo phakathi kolawulo kunye nokuziphendulela kuxhomekeke kwiziphumo ezibalulekileyo ekuguquleni umthetho wezaphuli-mthetho. Abameli baphikisa ngelithi inkqubo yangoku ishiya amaxhoba amaninzi olwaphulo-mthetho olusemthethweni ngaphandle kokuwafumana, ngenxa yokuba ukhuseleko oluphezulu nolufanelekileyo lwezokhuselo lwezokhuselo lungadala umqobo ongenakuxhonywa. Umzekelo, umntu ogwetyelwe ngokuphosakeleyo ngenxa yesenzo solwaphulo-mthetho esingafanelekanga ungakwazi ukumangalela urhulumente ngenxa yelahleko ngaphandle kokuba kusekho umthetho osisinxele. Ngokufanayo, amaxhoba enkohlakalo yamapolisa anokufumana izithuba ezincinane kuphela kumagosa anezixaso ezilinganiselwe, ngoxa umbutho oqeqeshiweyo ehlala engoonobugqhinga belizwe ungena emkhosini.

Impembelelo engokweerejista yamalungelo asekuhlaleni

Uphando oluvela kwimibutho enjenge- National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers [NACDL] lubonise ukuba iimpahla zamakhaya eziphumelelayo ezichasene nomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho lunqabile. Ugcino-lwazi olusuka kwi-Bureau of Justice Statistic Statistics lubonisa ukuba bangaphantsi kwesihlanu% ye-639 bathelela abadlali besizwe ukuba bazame, kwaye abaninzi bagxothwa kwisigaba esifutshane somgwebo kwimimandla ekhuselayo. Oku kubangele ukuba kuthathe inyathelo le-witrogement kwibrogate okanye ukhuseleko oluncinane lwe-omkhulu lwamalungelo abantu.

Izindululo Zokutshintsha

Kuxutyushwa ngezindululo eziliqela:

  • Ukunyuswa kobuSongamandla beRhulumente ukwenzela iiNjongo zomGaqo-siseko: Abanye abaphengululi abasemthethweni baphikisa ngelithi iBhunga limele lisebenzise iCandelo lalo lokunyanzelisa isihlanu ukudlulisa umthetho ocacileyo owenzelwe ukukhusela ipropatisiti yolawulo lowiso-mthetho 2016 . Ukuchasa komthetho-siseko okunjalo kungacelw'ilwa ucelomngeni, kodwa kungadlula ukuba kuthe kwalungiswa ngokunqamlezileyo.
  • [[NTLT:0] Ukukhutshwa kwe Ex e Young Imfundiso: Iinkundla zinokukwandisa ukufumaneka kwenkululeko yokugquma kungekuphela nje ulwaphuko oluqhubekayo kodwa kwanezo zinokwenzeka ukuba zibuye, zinika unyango olubanzi lwendlela engalunganga.
  • Ingxelo zomgangatho weTort zithi: Amazwe angazikhulula ngokwawo kwimiqathango ethile yezomthetho ethethayo, ingakumbi ukutshutshiswa ngetyala, ukuvalelwa entolongweni ngenkohliso, kunye nokugwetywa okuphosakeleyo. Amanye amazwe sele eseke iibhodi zembuyiselo kubantu abamsulwa.
  • Ukusetyenziswa kokhuselo olufanelekileyo: Ngelixesha lahlukeneyo nezokhuselo ezizimeleyo, imichiza efanelekileyo yokukhusela ukuma kwemeko yengxaki. Amazwe amaninzi aye amisela imithetho ekwalela ukukhusela ukukhusela imo yenkundla yeli lizwe, kwaye kucetyiswe ityala elifanayo kwiBhunga.

Ukhokelo Olusebenzisekayo Kwabathathi - nxaxheba Nabafundisi

Kubafundisi-mfundo nabafundi bomthetho womGaqo-siseko, ukuqonda ukudibana kwemibutho ekhusela ukunqanda ulawulo kunye nempahla yezaphuli-mthetho egwebayo kufuna ukuba kuhlawulwe ngocoselelo izalathiso ezininzi ezingokwasemthethweni. Abamangalelwa kufuneka bangahloli nje kuphela ukuba ummangalelwa ngurhulumente, umnini-majoni wasekuhlaleni, okanye urhulumente kodwa kwanokuba oko kufunwayo kufunwa kwezo zona, ukuthomalalisa, okanye zombini. Olu ludwe lulandelayo lunganceda ekusebenziseni ezi ngxaki:

  1. Ibonisa ummangalelwa: ngaba ngurhulumente, umxhasi wezwe, umphathi worhulumente kumandla asemthethweni, okanye umphathi kumsebenzi ngamnye?
  2. [[FLT: 0] I- metermine isombululo esifunwayo: umonakalo wemoneta osuka kwimeko usoloko uvingqwe ngaphandle kokuba umahluko uyasebenza; ukukhululeka kokuzikhulula kunokwenzeka phantsi Ex inxenye encinane.
  3. Check yemeko: Ingaba urhulumente udlulise intengo yetort okanye omnye umthetho othintela ukunqanda ukunqanda ukuthelekisa?
  4. unyuselo lwequmrhu lorhulumente: Ingaba ukhona umthetho wezwe osebenzayo wokukhusela iprojekti phantsi koMthetho wokuLawula weshumi elinesine? Imizekelo iquka iADA neSihloko IX, kodwa hayi 7631 ngokwayo.
  5. Intengo yomntu ngamnye yomthamo ithe: nokuba urhulumente ukhuselekile, umphathi ngamnye angamangalelwa phantsi ko 76 1983, ephantsi kokhuselo olufanelekileyo lokhuseleko.

Isiphelo: Ukulungelelana Okulula Phantsi Kwengcinezelo Engapheliyo

Ukulungelelaniswa kwemfundiso phakathi kokhuseleko lombuso olulawulayo kunye nonyango lwabemi ekuphunyezweni komthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho kubonisa umzabalazo obanzi wokudibanisa uburhulumente namalungelo abantu. Ukhuseleko lweSiphendu seshumi nenyeth seMida neSithintelo siqinisekisa ukuba amaphondo angalawula imicimbi yawo ngaphandle kwesoyikiso somthetho-mthetho, kodwa ezo zikhuseli azinakuba likhuseli lokuxhatshazwa komgaqo-siseko. Ngokwahlukileyo komthetho kunjengo uEx i-Young [FLT: 1], ukuhlanganisa i-broglation, kunye ne-oooopolitiss, inkqubo esemthethweni ikhutshiwe ngaphandle kwemikhondo yokuziphendulela. Sekunjalo, ezi ndlela zihlala zimxinene, kunye namaxhoba amaninzi eemeko ezingalunganga, okanye angazichananga, okanye azimeleyo iimeko zentolongo azifumani nyango.

Njengoko incoko yesizwe emalunga notshintsho lobulungisa besizwe isanda, indima yokuzikhusela ekuziphatheni ngokusemthethweni kwiisuti zamakhaya iza kuqhubeka iguquka. Iinkundla ziya kubizwa ukuba zilungise imida yokhuseleko lombuso ngokuqwalasela iimeko ezintsha eziyinyaniso, ngelixa izikhululo zisenokukhetha ukuxinene okanye ukwandisa amalungiselelo. Kubani na ohamba kule ndawo , umfundisi, igqwetha, okanye umxhasi wemithetho yesithethe kunye neemeko ezichasene nayo ubalulekile. Usukelo olupheleleyo luhlala luhleli: ukuqinisekisa ukuba umgaqo wolawulo lukarhulumente awukuthinteli ukugwetywa kwabo bamalungelo abo bamiselwe umthetho owiswe ngokusesikweni.

[[UMTL_HAWU] Izibonelelo:[[UMKCU]