Ukwakhiwa koLawulo lwaseMelika: Indlela Amasebe Amathathu Angenelelayo

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States umisa urhulumente wesizwe owakhelwe ukwahlulwa kwamagunya, wahlula igunya phakathi kwamasebe amathathu alinganayo: uwiso-mthetho, impatho-mthetho, kunye nezomthetho. Esi sakhiwo sayilwa ngabom ukuthintela ukuxinezeleka kwamandla kwisebe elinye, inkxalabo yabaseki ababambelele ngokunzulu emva kolwazi lwabo lolawulo lookumkani baseBritani. Ngoxa isebe ngalinye lisebenza ngokwalo ngokwalo ngeembopheleleko ezahlukileyo, ukudibana kwalo kwinkqubo entsonkothile yokuhlola nokulinganisela okuntsonkothile okudala uxinzelo olunelo olulawulayo olulawulayo nayiphi nayiphi na imigaqo emikhulu, umthetho, umthetho, kunye nomthetho ogwebayo. Ukuqonda oku kuyimfuneko ukuba nabani na ufuna ukuqonda indlela idemokhrasi esebenza ngayo kumsebenzi womthetho-mthetho-siseko wezomgqesho-colselse.

Isebe Elisemthethweni: Ingqungquthela njengesebe lokuqala

Inqaku I lamagunya owiso-mthetho onke akwiNgqungquthela yaseUnited States, eliwenza isebe lokuqala lorhulumente. IBhunga liyi-bimeral, eliqulethwe yiBhunga (amalungu alikhulu, amabini kwisizwe) neNdlu yabameli (abangama-435 abangamalungu ahlukeneyo ngabemi). Isebe lezemithetho-mthetho linegunya lemali, livakalisa imfazwe, lilawula urhwebo lwamazwe, kwaye lenza yonke imithetho karhulumente. Kodwa ukunxibelelana kwalo nomphathi kunye namasebe ejaji lidlulela kude lee ngaphaya kokwenza umthetho.

Ukwenza Umthetho: Ukungenelela Kwekhorathisi Nomphathi

Owona msebenzi ubonakalayo phakathi kweKhompathimente kunye nomongameli wenzeka ngexesha lenkqubo yowiso-mthetho. Umthetho kufuneka udlulise omabini amaziko afanayo uze unikwe uMongameli. UMongameli angasayina kuwo umthetho, awugameli, okanye awuvumele ukuba ube ngumthetho ngaphandle kosayino emva kweentsuku ezilishumi (iiCawa ezisusiweyo). Lo mbutho unamandla luhlolo olubalulekileyo: iBhunga linokuwulawula ngokungaphezulu kwe-i-32 kuphela ngemibhobho emikhulu ezindlwini zombini, umgqaliselo ophezulu ofunyaniswe kanqabileyo. Umzekelo, kwi 2020 iiBhunga-adeli ze-Rodemp's zeSiviko sokhuselo sokhuselo sokhuselo lwesizwe, kodwa amandla abonakala kumgangatho ongaphantsi kwesihlanu se-5% ye-Ademymentation.

Ngapha koko, ubuchule boMongameli bokucebisa umthetho kunye neNgqungquthela ekhuthaza ungquzulwano lwezopolitiko ibangela umngqungqo wezopolitiko oqhubekayo. Idilesi yeSizwe se-Union, efunwa liGatya II, iCandelo 3, lithuba elisesikweni lokuba uMongameli acebise amanyathelo. Kodwa ukudibana okungacwangciswanga ngezantsi kufana nokuqhutywa kweentlanganiso ze House ezimhlophe nezihlalo zekomiti eziphambili okanye ukusetyenziswa kweqokelelo lokuhlasela.

Uqingqo - mali Namandla Okuthenga

IKhomishini ilawula ukuchithwa kwemali kumgaqo-nkqubo wenkqubo. UmGaqo-siseko unika iNdlu yabameli amandla okusungula amatyala engeniso (Artle I, Icandelo 7). Eli gunya loqingqo-mali liyenye yeengqino zeBhunga elinamandla kwisebe elilawulayo. UMongameli unikezela izicelo zoqingqo-mali minyaka lenye, kodwa iBhunga alinyanzelekanga ukuba liyithabathe. Ekuqheliseni, ingxubusho yoqingqo-mali iba phezulu, ikhokelela ekucimeni kukarhulumente xa i-appropries. 2018.202020 , ubude bembali ye-U.S. iintsuku ezingama-35), ibonisa indlela isebe lowiso-mthetho elinokuyimisa ngayo imisebenzi yezolawulo ngokuxhasa ngemali.

Uphando Nolawulo

IKhomishini yeNkundla ePhakamileyo inegunya lokulawula isebe eliphetheyo, kuquka ukuva, ukukhupha iipopu, kunye nokuphengulula amaqumrhu karhulumente. Lo msebenzi wobuveleli uhlola amandla olawulo ngokuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho iphunyezwe ngendlela efunwa ngayo. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa ukuba eli gunya likwi- Mcrain v. Daughherty [197], ibambe ukuba iNgqungquthela inokuthi inyanzelise ubungqina kunye namaphepha okwazisa umthetho. Uphengululo oluphezulu lwe-projekthi ye-Watergatel, i-Iran-Chontroitra, kunye neKomiti kaJanuwari 6=Illigtaryte ichaza indlela i-ukunganyaniseki ngayo ukuziphatha okubi kunye nokunga.

Amandla Okufuna

UMgaqo-siseko unika iNdlu igunya elipheleleyo lokungathobeli (Icandelo 2) kunye neNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNdlu zeMasa okuzama ukuzama ukutyala (IsiHloko, iCandelo 3). Oku kuvavanywa kweNgqungquthela kumongameli, isekela-mongameli, okanye umgwebi wezwelo. Ngoxa ukungagunyazi kuyinkqubo yezopolitiko, kungekhona isigebengu, kufuna ukuba uninzi lwezivote eNdlwano ukuzisa izityholo kunye nevoti ezimbini zetyala kwiNdlu yee-3 eRontaramente ukuze ifumane ityala kwaye ishenxwe. Kuphela koomongameli abathathu abathenjiweyo bathelwe yiNdlukwano: (1868), uBill Clinton (ice, 2019, kunye noRodold Brackie. Akukho nto i-odomsbethiwayithi e-omatilaneyo, nangona abagwebi abaliqela beye basusiwe apha.

Isiqinisekiso samadinga olawulo oluphezulu namadinga eeJaji

Icebiso leNdlu yeeNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye nendima evumayo (Artle II, Icandelo 2) linika isebe lowiso-mthetho isandla esingqalileyo ekusebenzeni kwisebe eliphetheyo kunye nejaji. UMongameli ubeka ikomkhulu elingunobhala-mrhubhe, abagwebi bephondo (kuquka abagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo), oopolisa, namanye amagosa aphezulu, kodwa iBhunga leNtlangathanga-mthetho kufuneka libaqinisekise ngevoti yoninzi. Oku kudala intrakatho enzulu: uMongameli kufuneka akhethe ii-mine eziyamkelekileyo, okanye azimise okanye abeke engozini. Inkqubo yokuqinisekisa iNkundla ePhakakhulu yeNkundla i-Onkene i-om, isuke yathanda ukuphikisa, njengoko kuboniwe kumadabi akwizi kaRobert Robert Bork (198779, egatyiki), uClance (1991, ngokungqinwa okukhawuleza), kunye nokuqinisekiswa ngokukhawuleza kuka-Ammemy Barrey Barr Barr Barr Barrerrey kwiiveki 20202020

Isebe elinoLawulo oluPhezulu: UMongameli njengomlawuli oyintloko noMlawuli woMgaqo-nkqubo waMazwe

Inqaku lesibini lezahlulo ezilawulayo kuMongameli, osebenza njengentloko yephondo, umphathi-mikhosi, kunye nomphathi-ntloko worhulumente worhulumente. Isebe eliphetheyo liquka uMongameli onguMongameli onguMongameli, amasebe eKhabhinethi (15), amasebe azimeleyo, amagunya, ugunyaziso, kunye nentsebenziswano enkulu karhulumente. Intsebenziswano yoMongameli neBhungane neenkundla aziguquguquki yaye ngokufuthi ziyangquzulana.

IGama leVeto kunye neQhinga loMgaqo-siseko

Iveto mhlawumbi yeyona ndlela iphambili yokuhlola iBhunga. UMongameli angayeyisa nayiphi na imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga, eyinyanzelisa ukuba ifune ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho ephezulu. Ngapha koko, umongameli wangoku usebenzisa isisongelo se-veto ukukhupha intelekelelo kwiKhomishini. Izixhobo eziziwa ngokuba sisisongelo. Kwakhona abalawuli bayakwazi ukukhupha izibhengezo ezibhaliweyo ezihambisana nokutyikityolwa kwephepha elinokutolika umthetho okanye elibonisa indlela iqukumbela ngayo ukuwenza usebenze. Ngoxa ukutyo kungena myalelo osemthethweni, baye basetyenziswa ukuqinisekisa ukuchazwa kwenkcazelo yezolawulo, maxa wambi iinjongo ezicelw'ucinezela.

Imiyalelo yegunya nesenzo esingahambisaniyo

Abalawuli basoloko besebenzisa imiyalelo yolawulo ukukhokela imisebenzi karhulumente wesizwe ngaphandle komthetho omtsha. Le miyalelo inamandla omthetho kodwa inyanzelwa ngumGaqo-siseko kunye nemimiselo ekhoyo. Imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo isisixhobo esinamandla kumongameli ukufikelela iinjongo zenkqubo xa iBhunga lahlulahlulwa okanye libotshelelwe. Umzekelo, uMongameli Franklin D. Rooselt wakhupha uLungelo lweSilawuli 90666 ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi II, igunyazisa inkqubo yeMelika yaseMerika (elandelayo ixhaswe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo [Foct:0]] Kama v. United States). Umongameli uBarack Obama wasebenzisa imiyalelo yezolawulo ukuzalisekisa umsebenzi weCandelo loPhuhliso (DAC). Ngoko ke, imiyalelo yezolawulo lungamele i-omelelwe yinkundla yenkundla yezongameli ekwinqikeleziwe, njengoko kuvavanywe njengenkundla ekwinqikeleziwe, xa kuvunwe yiNkulwa umongameli woguqulelo, nangona uR.

Imicimbi Yamazwe Asemzini Nesivumelwano

UMongameli ngumphathi oyintloko kwimithetho yamanye amazwe, ulawulo lwezobuzwe, izivumelwano zezivumelwano, nokusebenza njengentloko-ntloko yemikhosi exhobileyo. Kodwa amagunya omgaqo-siseko wamanye amazwe avavanywa yiBhunga: izivumelwano zifuna ukudityaniswa kweNdlela yeQhinga ngevoti ezimbini, kwaye kuphela iBhunga elinoxanduva lokuvakalisa imfazwe. Uxanduva phakathi kwamandla olawulo lwemfazwe kunye negunya lombutho lolawulo lomkhosi, belungumxholo ophindaphindwayo, ukusuka kwimfazwe yaseKorea (ukusukela ngaphandle kwesindululo esisemthethweni) kwiSigunya loMkhosi womkhosi (AMF) emva kowe-9/11. Isigqibo semfazwe sowewaka sewaka, sidluliselwe kumongameli Nixon'sve, ukuzama ukumisela umkhosi womkhosi womkhosi kodwa ube ukuphumeza impumelelo, njengoko umongameli besoloko besenza ingcuthelela okanye besenza ingcungcuthethe.

Idinga Namandla Okushenxiswa

UMongameli umisela abagwebi besizwe namagosa amaninzi alawulayo, kodwa ufuna uqinisekiso lweNdlu yeeNtlanganiso. Xa eqinisekisiwe, inkoliso yamagosa aphetheyo isebenza ngolonwabo lukaMongameli yaye inokususwa ngaphandle kwesizathu. Noko ke, umGaqo-siseko awuthethi nto ngemida yokususwa, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo iyazivumela imiqathango: umzekelo, amaqumrhu azimeleyo anjengeFederal Reserve okanye iSectures okanye iKomishini ye-Exchange kunye neKhomishini ye-Exchange anokususwa kuphela ngenxa yesizathu, akhuthazeke ulawulo oluphezulu nokuzimela. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo ngolawulo oluzimeleyo ibonisa unxulumano olunamandla phakathi kolawulo, ulawulo oluzimeleyo (oluyindalo ludala) kunye (olucacisa isakhiwo sawo) namasebe awo).

Isebe Lezahlulelo: INkundla Ephakamileyo Namandla Okuhlolisisa Izahlulelo

Inqaku III limisa isebe lejaji, neNkundla ePhakamileyo njengeyona iphakamileyo. Ijaji ichaza imithetho karhulumente kunye nomGaqo-siseko, namandla ayo okuhlola isigwebo.

Ingqwalaselo ephambili yomthetho

INkundla ePhakamileyo ingavakalisa umthetho odluliswe yiKhonkethi engawunyaziyo, ngokunempumelelo. Eli gunya, lingakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, lasekwa nguMgwebi omkhulu John Marshall uMarbury v. Madison[. Imizekelo ininzi: [ ku-'. [[FLT]] . [[FLT]]] Rhooev [[12] v], [3] [3]), iNkubekqulu-ethe yawisa imithetho ethintela ukuqhotyo; [[FLT] kwi-Exf:5] i-Interves yorhwebo.[4] Ityala elininzi, (2017], xa kuthelwe i-Affrease projectives transtives, i-ogrreanstivey'upt) inguegroupt, inguall, i-ogne

Ingcebiso yezenzo zolawulo

Iinkundla zihlola isebe eliphetheyo ngokuqwalasela ubulunga bomthetho wemiyalelo, imimiselo, kunye nezenzo. Ukuba isenzo solawulo singaphezulu kwegunya lomthetho okanye sophula umGaqo-siseko, inkundla ingayibetha. Umzekelo, ulutsha olukwi-Stown sheep & Tube Co. v. Sawyer [1952], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ukuba uMongameli uTruman axhaswe izitshetshe zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yaseKorea ngenxa yokuba idlule amandla akhe aphezulu. [[FLT. FLT]. v [FLT.FLT] [FLD]] [12:3] [2017], iNkuMkhosi walawula ukuva uRhumo-ncomo (2017]), i-Xhosalms Prievicep) emva kokufumana kwakhe umthetho wokufuduka, nangona iinstruffastriody yangaphambili yayizingeekhoriageny, ivavanywa yinkundla engaphantsi kweekho

Idinga Nomsebenzi Njengokukhangela Kwijelo

UMongameli umisela abagwebi besizwe, kodwa iNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso iyabaqinisekisa, kwaye abagwebi basebenza ekumiselweni ubomi bonke (ukubonakalisa ukuziphatha okuhle”) ukuqinisekisa uzimele. Le nkqubo yokumisa ingumsebenzi onzima: uMongameli angabumba ijaji kamashumi eminyaka ngokubeka izigwebo ezicalucalucalulo ngokwezahlulo ezithile zentanda-mthetho. IBhathene, ingakumbi xa ilawulwa liqela elichaseneyo, ingavala okanye ilibazise ukutha utshintsho. Idabi leenkundla eziPhakathi-mthetho eziPhakamileyo liye laqina, ngokungavumi ukuqwalasela uMgwebi uMongameli uMabo Garland ngo2016 (ngaphantsi koMongameli Oma) kunye nokuqulukuqela kweJajisi-Gqithisi uBarrett ngo-2020 ibala indlela ukuphembele ngayo imigaqo yezo zezo zezopolitiko.

Ukutyholwa Kwamandla EeNkundla

IKhomishini imisela inani labagwebi (ngoku abasithoba). Phantsi kweCandelo III, iCandelo leNkundla ePhakamileyo, i-Congress ingamisela ulawulo lweNkundla ePhakamileyo, unqabileyo olusetyenziswa kodwa lunamandla. Umzekelo, emva kokuba iNkundla ibethe umthetho ] ekwahluleni i-Cardle [1869], iNgqungquthela isuse igunya leNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiimeko ezithile, kwaye iNkundla iphakamise ukususwa kwetyala. Ngexesha iNkundla inqabile isebenzisa eli gunya, isisongelo solawulo sinokuba siphembele isimilo senkundla ephakamileyo.

Iingqikelelo nolungelelwano olusendleleni: Imizekelo yophawu

Indlela yokuhlola nokulinganisa ayiyonto ecingelwayo; isebenza ngokuqhubekayo kulawulo lwehlabathi lokwenene. Nantsi imizekelo emininzi yemifanekiso ebonisa intsebenziswano esebenzayo phakathi kwamasebe:

ISebe libonise ukuba

I-ACA idlulise iKhomishini enezivoti zedemokrasi kuphela yaza yatyikitywa nguMongameli Obama. yacelw'elwa ngoko nangoko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa uninzi lomthetho NFIB v. Sebelius (202]), kodwa yafumana ukuba iKhomishini ayikwazanga ukunyanzela ukuba amatyala andise uMdipotime. Ngonyaka we- 2015, iNkundla ixhase i-A ku-[FLT]. uKinggg [[, ngoku ukutolika kolwimi oluthetha iirhafu ezithekileyo. Ngeli xesha, uMongameli Obama wasebenzisa imisebenzi ephambili ekuphumeleni umthetho womthetho, kunye nombutho-Riphabliki ye-201717, xa engaphumeleli kwi-Riphabliki-Riphabliki.

Ukuvalwa Kohambo (2017-2018)

Umyalelo womphathi olawulayo kaTrump wokwalela ukuhamba ukusuka kumazwe amaninzi amaSilamsi kwacelwa ityala ngokukhawuleza. Iinkundla ezisezantsi, zicaphula zombini igunya lomthetho kunye nokumiselwa komGaqo-siseko u-Claus, wavala umyalelo. ISithili seSizwe saphakamisa umyalelo omnye. Urhulumente waluhlaziya umgaqo, kodwa kwakhona wavinjelwa. Ekugqibeleni, iNkundla ePhakamileyo [FLT:] Trump v. Hawaii waxhasa inguqulelo yesithathu, wafumana ukuba uMongameli unegunya elibanzi ekufudukeni kwabantu, kwaye umyalelo awuzange ulwephula u-mthetho u-Clauslaus. Oku kubonisa indlela ulandeleno oluthiyo lwe-judia oluthi oluthiyo luthintela ukulungisa i-gradiod okanye olunolawulo.

Marbury v. Madison (103) – Foundal Interaction

Eli tyala lavela kwimibango yezopolitiko phakathi koMongameli ohambayo uJohn Adams (umongameli ohlalayo) kunye noMongameli ozayo uThomas Jefferson (uMthetho weDemocratic-Republican). UAdams wamisela abagwebi abaliqela basebusuku, kodwa amagunya awazange anikwe. Unobhala weSizwe kaJefferson, uJames Madison, wala ukunikezela uMandreary. UMarbury wafaka ngqo kwiNkundla ePhantsintsi phantsi kwelungiselelo leNkundla ePhakamileyo yowe-Judiare. Wayiphepha ngokuphepha inkundla elawula ngokulawula.

IWatergate neUnited States v. Nixon (1974)

Ngexesha lehlazo leWatergate, uMongameli Nixon wazama ukuvala iikhasethi zesandi ezikhatywa ngumtshutshisi okhethekileyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ngamxhelo mnye ukuba ilungelo eliphezulu lilinganiselwe kwaye alidluliseli ubungqina kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho. UNixon wavuma kwaye kungekudala warhoxa. Eli tyala libonisa intsebenziswano enzima: iinkundla zinganyanzela umphathi ukuba avelise ulwazi, kwaye umphathi-ntloko-mthetho umele athobele, kwanakumgangatho ophezulu. Ikwabonisa indima yokuphengulula ingqungquthela (iKomiti yeNtsimbi Yamanzi) ekubhenceni umngeni wesihlazo.

Ukuxinezeleka Kwale Mihla Nezenzo Eziguqukayo

Ulungelelwano lwamandla phakathi kwamasebe luye lwatshintsha ngokuhamba kwexesha. Ulawulo lwale mihla luye lwakhula ngokuphawulekayo, ingakumbi emva kweNew Develop kunye neMfazwe Yehlabathi II, kwaye abaphengululi abaninzi baphikisa isebe eliphetheyo ngoku elilawula inkqubo. IBhunga maxa wambi liye lazibuyisela emva ngolawulo kunye nolawulo lwemali, kodwa iingxoxo zemali kunye nokuhla kwemimandla yephondo ziye zakhokelela oomongameli ukuba baxhomekeke ngakumbi kwimiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo kunye nenyathelo elingathathi nxaxheba. Kwangaxesha linye, ijajithe yathatha indima ephambili ekuhloleni imisebenzi yempangelo, ingakumbi ngexesha lolawulo lweTrump nolweBhidens.

  • Ilungelo elibalulekileyo kunye nengqungquthela: Ulawulo lweTrump lwaye ngokuqhelekileyo lwala ukuthobela iNdlu engaphantsi kwendlu, nto leyo ekhokelela ekudeleni ucatshulwa namadabi enkundla. INkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Trump v. Mazars[[FLT] [20]) wamisela uvavanyo olulinganiselweyo lwengqungquthela yemibanisa iipawu ezingaphantsi kwengxelo zemali zikamongameli, kodwa iintsebenziswano zihlala zikho.
  • Amandla onyanzelo: Oomongameli baye bacela uMthetho weSizwe we-Emerdiation ukuba benze izenzo ngaphandle kweBhunga, njengokwakha udonga lomda. IBhunga linokuphelisa ungxamiseko ngesigqibo esidibeneyo, kodwa izigqibo ezinjalo zifuna uninzi okanye usayino lomongameli.
  • Ukubekwa kwemithetho yamandla: IiKhomishini zisoloko zigqithisa imimiselo ebanzi enika amasebe aphethe igunya. INkundla ePhakamileyo izamana nemida yabathunywa, kwaye izigqibo zakutshanje ezifana iWest Virginia v. EPA [2022] [iimfundiso engundoqo], ifuna iKhomishini ithethe ngokucacileyo xa iphathiswa imicimbi yezoqoqosho okanye yezobupolitika.
  • Amadinga e-judicial kunye ne-monicbuster: INdlu yeNtsimbi yakhupha i-generist kwinkundla esezantsi ngo-2013 (“ukhetho lwenyukliya”) kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo ngo-2017, yenza isiqinisekiso sibe lula kuninzi olulula. Oku kuye kwaqinisa amadabi alawulayo kwiimeko zocalulo zejaji ze-iathor kwaye kwaguqula ingxoxo phakathi kweNdluvo kunye ne-messagement.

Le mizekelo igxininisa ukuba inkqubo yomGaqo-siseko ayingqubani. Isizukulwana ngasinye sichaza kwakhona imida yamandla, yaye amasebe aqhubeka ethetha ngeendima zawo esebenzisa iinkqubo ezicwangcisiweyo nezobupolitika ezingacwangciswanga.

Isiphelo: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kukho Kokwahlukana Kwamandla

Unxulumano phakathi kowiso-mthetho, ulawulo, kunye namasebe agwebayo lubumba intliziyo enamandla yolawulo lwamaMelika. Inkqubo yokuhlola kunye nolwahlulo, ngelinye ixesha engasebenzi kakuhle kwaye ibambe isithintela naliphi na isebe ekuqokeleleni amandla angathintelwayo. Inyanzelisani, inyanzelisa, inyanzelisa, nokuphendula. Ukuqonda oku /iiintentelekelelo ngezantsi ukuya kuhlolo lomthetho, ukusuka ekuqinisekiseni iimfazwe ukuya ekuqondiseni ukuvalwa kwenkululeko kunye nomthetho osemthethweni eUnited States.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga i- yeSiko loMgaqo-siseko woMgaqo-siseko woMgaqo-siseko woMbutho woMzwelo , i- i-Cortive.gov ugcino-lwazi lwemithetho-siseko [, kunye ne-[[FLT:] i-webhritiom yeNkundla yezobuzwe [[[FLT]] i-'ANkusebenza [[FLT:]]] izibonelelo eziphezulu.