Ukuqonda Isiseko Sezahlulelo: ISikhokelo Senkundla Elawulayo

Iqela lenkundla lilelona linesiseko lenkqubo yomthetho yanamhlanje, lilungiselela isakhiwo esilungelelanisiweyo nesithe ngqo solawulo lobulungisa. Ngokuchaza imigangatho ecacileyo yegunya kunye negunya, iquade iqinisekisa ukuba amatyala aphathwa ngokunempumelelo, imibuzo engokwasemthethweni iconjululwe ngokungqinelana, kwaye amalungelo abantu akhuselwa kwinkqubo elungelelanisiweyo yezibongozo. Eli nqaku lihlola amanqanaba ahlukeneyo egunya lekomiti yokwahlulela, imisebenzi yenkundla nganye ngaphakathi kwemigangatho yeqela leqela, nokubaluleka okubalulekileyo kwesi sakhiwo ekulondolozeni umthetho. Ukuba ungumfundi womthetho, ugcisa ngokomthetho, okanye unomdla nje kwindlela okusesikweni okusebenza ngayo, ukuqonda okucokisekileyo kwenkundla yezomthetho kuyimfuneko ekuqondeni amandla amakhulu enkqubo yomthetho.

Yintoni Egqugqisileyo Enkundleni?

Iqela leenkundla libhekisela kwilungiselelo elicwangcisiweyo leenkundla ezilawulwa ngumthetho, eliyalelwa ligunya, igunya, nohlobo lwamatyala eziwasingathayo. Emazantsi, iqumrhu leqela leecawa limisa itsheyina lomyalelo nezokuqala: izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla eziphezulu zibopha iinkundla ezisezantsi, kwaye amatyala anyuka esuka kwiinkundla ezigwebayo ukuya kwiinkundla eziphakamileyo. Esi sakhiwo sithintela isiphithiphithiphithi-phithi-phithi-phithi-phithi-phithi-phithi-zincwadi ezingo ngokomthetho, nangokuthi jikezwa ziinkundla eziphantsi, zinokulungiswa ngamaqumrhu aphezulu, anegunya.

Iqela lezadi leenqanawa limi ngohlobo oluthile, linesiseko esibanzi seenkundla zamatyala eziqala ukuva amatyala, ithala eliphakathi elimxinwa leenkundla eziphakathi, kunye nenkundla enye ephakamileyo kwincopho. Ngaphezu koko, iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zinokubakho kwimigangatho eyahlukeneyo, zibonisa imfuneko yobuchule kwiindawo ezithile zomthetho. Amagama nentlangano yeenkundla ezithile ziyahluka-tshintsha ngokwelizwe nangesithethe — umzekelo, iUnited States inemigangatho yesizwe ecaleni kwephondo lee-horierdrarchis, ngoxa iUnited Kingdom inesakhiwo esimanyeneyo seenkundla ezingopheleli ne-Wales, iSkotlani, kunye ne-Northern Ireland. Phezu kwayo, le migaqo esisiseko yecawadio — ukuhlonelwa kwemimiselo, ukucacielo, ukucaciswa kwe-Allette, kunye nemidabiko yolawulo jikelele.

Ukuqonda iqumrhu lenkundla akuyonkqubo yemfundo nje; kuchaphazela ngqo indlela abachaphazeli abasebenzisa ngayo inkqubo yomthetho, indlela abagwebi abawabeka ngayo amatyala, nendlela abachaza ngayo umthetho. Ngokomzekelo, isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States sithwala igunya elibophelelekileyo kuzo zonke iinkundla zikarhulumente ne zikarhulumente kwimibuzo yomthetho karhulumente, ngoxa isigqibo senkundla yamatyala asinasiphumo esisithintelayo ngaphaya kwetyala elithile.

Amanqanam Enkundla Aphangaleleyo: Ukuwohloka Okunenkcukacha

Ngoxa inani elichanileyo lemigangatho lingahluka, inkoliso yenkundla elawulayo iquka ubuncinane iithala ezintathu ezingundoqo: iinkundla zamatyala, iinkundla zetyala, kunye nenkundla ephakamileyo. Kwimimandla emininzi, kukho inkundla ephakathi ehlala phakathi kweenkundla zamatyala nenkundla ephakamileyo. Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zibumba amasebe awongezelelekileyo asingatha iindidi ezithile zamatyala. Ngentla, sihlolisisa umgangatho ngamnye ngokweenkcukacha, kuquka ulawulo lwazo, imisebenzi, kunye neenkqubo ezithile.

Iinkundla zetyala: Isiseko senkqubo yezeejaji

Iinkundla zetyala, ezidla ngokubizwa njengeenkundla zemeko yokuqala okanye zolawulo lokuqala, zilapho kuqalisa khona amatyala asemthethweni. Zingumgangatho ophantsi kwiqumrhu labefundisi, kodwa azinanto ibalulekileyo kakhulu — enyanisweni, amatyala amaninzi aqala aze aphele kweli nqanaba. Iinkundla zamatyala zibophelelekile ekufumaneni izibakala zetyala, ekusebenziseni umthetho ofanelekileyo, nasekuwiseni isigqibo okanye ekugwebeni. Zisingatha zombini iimpikiswano zamakhaya (ezinjengezivumelwano, ingxwelerha yobuqu, kunye nomthetho wentsapho) kunye netyala lolwaphulo-mthetho (ukungamelani kwityala elinzulu).

Kwinkundla yamatyala, kunikelwa ubungqina ngobungqina, amaxwebhu, kunye nemiboniso ephathekayo. Ijaji ijonge inkqubo, imigaqo echasayo, ize iyalele abachopheli-tyala (ukuba ukho) kumthetho. Abachopheli-tyala, bona benza njengemeko engu-33finder, begqiba oko kwenzekayo ngokusekelwe kubungqina. Kumatyala ebhentshi, kwakhona ijaji igqiba izibakala. Iziphumo zenkundla eqhubeka ityala zinokuba kukugweba okanye ukugwetywa kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, okanye umgwebo weqela elinye kwityala loluntu.

Iinkundla ezininzi zamatyala zisekwe ngokubhekele phaya kwiinkundla ezilawula amagunya jikelele kunye neenkundla zamazwe ezisikelwe umda. Iinkundla zezolawulo jikelele — njengeenkundla eziphakamileyo, iinkundla zesiphaluka, okanye iinkundla zesithili — zingaliva naliphi na ityala elingabelwanga ezinye iinkundla. Iinkundla zesebe ezisikelwe umda, ngokwahlukileyo, zithintelwa kwiimeko ezithile, ezifana nezithi zincinane, iinkundla zezithuthi, okanye iimpikiswano zelizwe. Le candelo linceda ekulawuleni iinkundla zetyala kwaye liqinisekisa ukuba izinto ezilula ziconjululwe ngokukhawuleza nangokungacwangciswangacwangciswanga, ngoxa amatyala anzima efumana iingxelo ezipheleleyo zenkundla yemithetho jikelele.

Imizekelo yeenkundla zamatyala iquka iiNkundla zeSithili (ityala leSithili), iinkundla zephondo eziphakamileyo, neenkundla zeejaji zaseNgilani naseWales. Kwamanye amazwe, kukho iinkundla zamatyala ezikhethekileyo kubantwana, kwintsapho, okanye kwimicimbi ephambili, ezibonisa imfuneko yokuba kubekho ubuchule obukhethekileyo.

Inkundla ephandayo: Icandelo lokuqala lokuhlola

Asiyomiqathango yonke enezibheno eziphakathi, kodwa apho zikhoyo, zidlala indima ebalulekileyo ekukhululeni umthwalo kwinkundla ephakamileyo. Iinkundla ze-intermediate appenellate — ezidla ngokubizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zezibongozo, izahlulo ezisemgangathweni, okanye iinkundla eziphezulu ezibhenele kwizibheno zenkundla evavanyiweyo. Umsebenzi wazo oyintloko kukuhlola ingxelo yenkundla esezantsi ngenxa yeempazamo ezingokwasemthethweni, kungekhona ukuphicotha izibakala.

Izibheno zisekelwe kwimiba esetyenziswa kakubi yomthetho, ukuvuma ubungqina obungafanelekanga, ukunikela imiyalelo ephosakeleyo, okanye ukwenza iimpazamo ezichaphazelekayo ezichaphazelekayo. Inkundla yeli tyala ihlola irekhodi lokuvavanya, ibhalwe kafutshane kumacala omabini, kwaye maxa wambi iva iimpikiswano ezithethwayo. Emva kokucazululwa, inkundla iyakwazi ukuqinisekisa (ukuxhasa) isigqibo santlandlolo, ukujika, okanye ukubuyisela (ukubuya emva) kwetyala elithe ngqinelana nesigwebo sayo. Kwezinye iimeko, inkundla yetyala isenokulungisa isigwebo senkundla sokuvavanywa ngaphandle kokulungisa ityala ngokupheleleyo.

Iinkundla ze-intermediate appenellate zikwafak' isandla ekuphuhlisweni komthetho ngokukhupha iimbono ezibhaliweyo ezicacisa imigaqo esemthethweni. Ngoxa ezi mbono zibophelelekile phakathi kolawulo lwendawo yenkundla (ngokuqhelekileyo isithili okanye ummandla wephondo), zinokuba zeyisela kwamanye amazwe. Kwinkqubo karhulumente wase-U.S., iiNkundla ezili-13 zezibheno zisebenza njengenqanaba eliphambili kuzo zonke iinkundla zesithili, kwaye izigqibo zazo ziyabopha ngaphandle kokuba ziphendulwe yiNkundla Ephakamileyo. Ngokufanayo, amazwe amaninzi aneenkundla eziphakathi ekusingathwaleni umqulu okhulayo, eqinisekisa ukuba inkundla ephakamileyo yezomthetho isebenza njengeyona mibalulekayo engundoqo.

IiNkundla Eziphakamileyo: INkundla YezoKwiNkundla Yokugqibela

Kwincopho yequmrhu lecawa ihleli kwinkundla ephakamileyo (okanye inkundla ephakamileyo yezomgaqo-siseko kwezinye iinkqubo). Le yeyona nkundla iphakamileyo yezomthetho, yaye izigqibo zayo zigqibele ngemibuzo yomthetho ophantsi kolawulo lwayo. Inkundla ephakamileyo ayiwaphulaphuli amatyala njengenkundla yamatyala; endaweni yoko, ihlola izigqibo eziphuma kwiinkundla eziphantsi, ngokuyintloko ukucombulula iimbambano phakathi kweenkundla eziphakathi, ukugqiba imibandela ebalulekileyo yomthetho, okanye ukutolika umgaqo-siseko.

Ukufikelela kwinkundla ephakamileyo kudla ngokubekwa kwityala. Kwinkqubo ezininzi, inkundla ikhetha ukuba ngawaphi amatyala ekufuneka enziwe ngendlela efana netyala le-certiori (U.S.), ishiyeke ibhenele kwisicelo (i-Canada, iNgilani), okanye isibheno kwimbambano yomthetho (iJamani). Inkundla ingakukhanyela ukuhlolisiswa kwamatyala amaninzi — ngokufuthi angaphezulu kwama-95% — ishiya isigqibo senkundla esezantsi sisesikhundleni. Kuphela kumatyala aphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo engokomgaqo-siseko, abandakanya ukuchazwa komthetho phakathi kweenkundla eziphantsi, okanye intetho yemibango yoluntu efuna umdla onyanzelekileyo ivunyiwe ngokupheleleyo.

Xa inkundla ephakamileyo iphulaphule ityala elithile, ifumana intetho ebhaliweyo ebhaliweyo kwaye iva iimpikiswano ezidluliselwa ngomlomo ezivela emalungwini, kunye ne-ancirus curiae (umhlobo wenkundla) ezifutshane ezivela kumaqela anomdla. Inkundla ngoko ikhupha uluvo olubhaliweyo lokuba kungekuphela nje ukugqiba ityala elithile kodwa ikwamisela umzekelo obopha zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi. Lo mzekelo uba yinxalenye yesiseko somthetho, ubumba indlela amatyala afanayo aya kuconjululwa ngayo kwixesha elizayo. Imizekelo engenakuphawulwa iquka izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo yamalungelo abantu, namandla orhulumente, kunye nezomthetho weNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-UK elawulayo kwimimiselo kunye namalungelo abantu.

Amanye amazwe anenkundla eyahlukeneyo yomGaqo-siseko esebenza ngaphezulu okanye ecaleni kwejaji eqhelekileyo, njengeNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yaseJamani. Kwinkqubo ezinjalo, inkundla yomGaqo-siseko isingatha imingeni kuphela kumthetho-siseko, ngeli lixa inkundla ephakamileyo isingatha eminye imicimbi.

Iinkundla Ezikhethekileyo: Inkcubeko Ejoliswe Kwityala Elintsonkothileyo

Ngapha koko, iinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho zimisela iinkundla ezikhethekileyo ukusingatha iindawo ezithile zomthetho ezifuna ubuchule obunzulu, isigqibo esikhawulezileyo, okanye indlela eyahlukileyo yokuthetha. Ezi nkundla zisenokubakho ekuchotshelweni okanye kumgangatho wenkqubo kwaye ngokufuthi ziba neejaji ezinikezelweyo ngoqeqesho olukhethekileyo. Iintlobo eziqhelekileyo ziquka:

  • IiNkundla zoNtlango zoNtlalo — Cazulula uqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, ukugcinwa kwabantwana kunye nemicimbi yogonyamelo lwasekhaya.
  • [[UMTHET: 0] Inkundla yeJuvenile[[FT:1] — Baphatha abantwana abatyholwe ngolwaphulo-mthetho (ukuthembeka) okanye abo bafuna ukhuseleko (ukuxhomekeka). Inkcazo yabo kukubuyisela imo yesiqhelo kunokusohlwaya.
  • [[UMTL: 0] IiNkundla zeTax — Lungisa iimpikiswano phakathi kwabaqeshi berhafu nabaphathi berhafu karhulumente. Zisebenzisa iikhowudi zerhafu ezintsonkothileyo kunye nemimiselo.
  • IiNkundla zeBankipructs — Coca iintlawulo zenyibiliko, kuquka Isahluko 7, 11, kunye ne 13 yemiqokozo kwinkqubo ye-U.S.
  • IiNkundla zoBuphathi — Izigqibo zempinda ezenziwa ngabameli bakarhulumente, njengeenkundla zokufuduka, izibheno zokhuseleko loluntu, okanye iikomishini yowiso-mthetho.
  • [[UMTL:0] Iinkundla zogcino-lwazi — umthetho womkhosi onyanzelisayo kunye noqeqesho phakathi kwemikhosi exhobileyo.

Iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zingaphucula ukuphumelela ngokulungiselela amatyala kubagwebi abaqonda intsingiselo yomthetho, banciphise uxinzelelo lwedokisi kwiinkundla jikelele, kwaye banike iziphumo ezithe ngqo. Noko ke, bakwabeka engozini yokwenza icandelo lejaji elihlukeneyo apho amasebe ahlukeneyo akhula khona iinkcazelo zomthetho ezingafaniyo. Ukuthoba oku, iinkundla ezininzi ezikhethekileyo zihlala ziphantsi kolawulo lwemigangatho jikelele.

Indlela Iimeko Ezihamba Ngayo Kulawulo Olufihlakeleyo: Indlela Yesibheno

Enye yezona zicelo zisebenzayo zeqela lemidlalo lenkundla yinkqubo yokukhupha ityala. Ukuqonda indlela ityala eliqhubekeka ngayo ukusuka kwinkundla yamatyala phezulu kukhanyisela inkqubo yonke. Qwalasela ukumangalelwa kwamakhaya okuqhelekileyo kulawulo olunemigangatho emithathu:

  1. Ityala 1: INkundla yetyala — Ityala liqala kwinkundla yamatyala enegunya lantlandlolo. Ityala liqala kwityala elinolawulo lokuqala. Isalathisi sifaka isikhalazo, ummangalelwa, iimpendulo, nasemva kokufunyaniswa, ityala libanjelwa. Inkundla echotshelweyo ikhupha umgwebo. Ukuba akukho sibheno sibekwe, eli tyala liphelela apha.
  2. [[NTLT: 0] Inkundla ye-intermediate Appelcation — Ukulahleka kwetyala kusisaziso sesibheno, iphikisa into yokuba inkundla equlunqayo yenza impazamo engokwasemthethweni. Inkundla yekomiti ayisiphulaphuli ubungqina obutsha; ihlola ingxelo yokuvavanywa kwetyala kunye neempikiswano ezisemthethweni. Isenokuqinisekisa, ukubuyisela, okanye ukuphinda umva.
  3. Ityala 3: INkundla ePhakamileyo — Ukuba iqela elilahlekileyo lisanelisekile, lingacela inkundla ephakamileyo ukuba iphinde iphinde iphinde ifumane. Inkundla ephakamileyo igqiba ukuba ingaliva na eli tyala. Ukuba iyaligatya, isigqibo senkundla yezahlulelo sihleli. Ukuba iyasamkela, inkundla ephakamileyo ikhupha isigqibo sokugqibela esibophelela zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi kwigunya layo.

Oku kuqukuqela kuqinisekisa ukuba iimpazamo ziyabanjwa zilungiswe, ngeli xesha zinika inkundla ephakamileyo ithuba lokucacisa umthetho. Kwimithetho elawulayo engenawo umgaqo wenkundla ephakathi, isibheno sisuka ngqo kwinkundla evavanyiweyo ukuya kwinkundla ephakamileyo, enokuthwalisa inkundla ephakamileyo. Yiyo loo nto iinkqubo ezininzi zale mihla zifake umgangatho ophakathi.

Kubalulekile ukuphawula ukuba izibheno azilo “tyala lesibini.” Iinkundla zezicelo zithobela iziphumo zenkundla yamatyala ngaphandle kokuba ziphosakele. Ingongoma ibhekiselele ekubeni umthetho usetyenziswe ngokufanelekileyo. Oku kuthabatha izibheno kumaxesha onke ukuphinda zifumane izibakala ezifanayo.

Ukubaluleka Kokungalawuleki Kwenkundla: Isizathu Sokuba Kubalulekile

Iqela labefundisi basebukhosini aliyonto yezobundlobongela; lisebenza imisebenzi emininzi ebalulekileyo exhasa umthetho:

  • Ukungaguquguquki nokuxelwa kwangaphambili — izigqibo zenkundla ephakamileyo zidala imizekelo ebophelelekileyo ekhokela iinkundla ezisezantsi, amagqwetha, kunye nabemi. Oku kuvumela abantu ukuba bazi umthetho kusengaphambili baze bacwangcise imicimbi yabo ngokufanelekileyo.
  • [[UMTL:0] Imposiso yokulungisa [ — Inkqubo ekwimigangatho emininzi inika iindlela zokulungisa iimpazamo ezenziwe ziinkundla zamatyala, ukhusela abantu kwiinkolo eziphosakeleyo okanye kwimigwebo engekho sikweni.
  • I-altation esebenzayo yeZibonelelo — Amatyala alula nangalulekanga angasombululwa ngokukhawuleza kumgangatho wokuvavanywa kwetyala, lo gama imibuzo entsonkothileyo engokwasemthethweni igcinelwe iinkundla eziphezulu ezinexesha nobuchule obuninzi.
  • Ukusungula iNkqutyana — Ngokufaka izibheno kwiinkundla eziphakathi, inkundla ephakamileyo ikhululiwe ekuncipheni ityala ngalinye. Oku kugcina amandla ayo okuqwalasela eyona ngxaki inegalelo.
  • ILegitacy kunye nokuthemba uluntu — Inkqubo ecacileyo, elawulayo apho amagunya aphezulu adla ngokupapasha iingcamango zinyusa ukuthemba uluntu kwijaji. Abahlali bangabona ukuba izigqibo zisekelwe kumthetho, hayi kukuzingca.
  • ukuguquka koMthetho [ — ngaphandle kwequmrhu labefundisi, iinkundla zamatyala ezahlukeneyo zingawuchaza umthetho omnye ngeendlela ezingqubanayo. Inkundla ephakamileyo ingayisombulula le milo, iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho usetyenziswa ngokufanayo ngaphaya kolawulo.

Ngokomzekelo, kwinkqubo karhulumente enjenge-United States, inkundla yephondo isingatha amatyala amaninzi eentsuku ezingama-33to6, ngoxa iqumrhu lesizwe liqhubana nemibandela yomthetho karhulumente kunye nomGaqo-siseko. INkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States ihleli phezu kwazo zombini iinkqubo, iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe uchazwa ngokungaguqukiyo kwilizwe lonke. Ngokufanayo, kwinkqubo efana neyaseFransi, iCour de Cassation (iNkampuzelo yomthetho) iqinisekisa ukuchazwa okufanayo komthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho kwiinkundla zamakhaya neenkundla zakwabaphuli-mthetho.

Ukunyamekela Abalawuli: Ukubonakalisa Ulwazelelelo Olusebenzisekayo Kubafundi Nabasebenzi

Kubafundi bomthetho, ukuyiqonda iqumrhu lenkundla kukwenye yemiqobo yokuqala yokwakha imfundo engokwasemthethweni. Ichaza indlela ofunda ngayo umthetho wetyala — ngapha koko, isigqibo esivela kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo sibaluleke kakhulu kunesigqibo senkundla yokuvavanya. Ukwazi ukuba yiyiphi inkundla emisela umzekelo kukunceda ukuba ulifumane igunya layo. Kubenzi bezonyango, abalawuli bamisela icebo: Ufanele ubhale phi ityala? Yiyiphi inkundla ebophelelekileyo? Awaphi amathuba okuphumelela kwisicelo sokubhenela?

Xa uphanda umthetho, hlala uphawula umgaqo wenkundla kunye nolawulo lwetyala. Iisiseko ezininzi zomthetho zokuxhasa isiseko zikuvumela ukuba uhluze ngeqela lesibini lenkundla. Kwakhona, yazi ukuba imigangatho yeqela lenqanawa ingawuchaphazela umgangatho wohlolo kwisicelo: imibuzo yomthetho iyaphinda ihlolwe [ devo (ntsha), ngelixa iimfuno zento ziphinda zihlolwa ngenxa yempazamo okanye ubungqina obucacileyo. Le milinganiselo imo efana ne-applette ijonge iinkundla.

Ukuba ungumxhasi ongekho mthethweni osebenzisanayo nenkqubo yomthetho, ukuqonda iqumrhu lezobungangamsha kukunceda ukwazi oko umele ukukulindele. Ngokomzekelo, ukuba ungumtya wokumangalelwa, kufuneka wazi ukuba ukulahlekelwa kukuvavanya akuthethi ukuphela — unelungelo lokubhenela (ngokulawulwa zizithintelo). Ngokuchasene noko, ukuba inkundla ephakamileyo kulawulo lwakho sele igqibe ityala elifanayo ngokuchasene nawe, amathuba akho okuphumelela ekumangalelweni anciphile kakhulu.

Umahluko ngaphaya kweenkqubo zomthetho: UMthetho oQhelekileyo uphikisana. Abaphathi boMthetho waBami

Ngeli xesha isiseko solwakhiwo lwe-triartite (uvavanyo, uvavanyo oluphakathi, oluphezulu) luxhaphakile, kukho umahluko ophawulekayo phakathi komthetho oqhelekileyo kunye nezithethe zoluntu. Kwinkqubo zomthetho eqhelekileyo (umz., U.S., UK, Canada, Australia), imfundiso ye stare decissis [ukubekwa phambili] [ukungaphakami)]. Izigqibo eziphezulu zenkundla ziyanyanzelelwa, kunye nemithetho yemigangatho enyanzeliswa yile. Iinkundla ezisezantsi kufuneka zilandele imimiselo yeenkundla ngaphezulu. Ngalo ndlela idina i-projectiveationstion of contactive sy sy sy sy .

Kwinkqubo yomthetho wamakhaya (umz., iFransi, iJamani, iJapan), iqumrhu labefundisi likwakhona, kodwa imodeli ayibopheleleki ngendlela efanayo. Iinkundla kulindeleke ukuba zisebenzise ikhowudi ebhaliweyo nemithetho. Noko ke, eziqheliselayo, izigqibo eziphezulu zenkundla — ingakumbi kwiinkundla eziphakamileyo okanye zomgaqo-siseko — zikholisa kakhulu kwaye azinakukhathalelwa. Iinkqubo zomthetho wamakhaya zisoloko zinenkundla eyahlukeneyo ngaphandle kwemithetho-siseko eqhelekileyo, kwaye imicimbi yolawulo isenokuya kwimigangatho eyahlukileyo yeenkundla zeenkundla zolawulo (njengeConse d’État). Imisebenzi engundoqo yokuhlola iimpazamo nokuqinisekisa iiyunithi ze-ftware ihlala ihleli, kodwa inkqubo kunye nemisebenzi eyahlukeneyo.

Ukongezelela, amanye amagunya, anjenge-United Kingdom, anesakhiwo senkundla esimanyeneyo esigquma izibheno zombini ezabel ’ umngeni nezezoluntu. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ye-UK (eyamiselwa ngo- 2009) yathabathel' indawo yeNkundla yaBalawuli njengenkundla ephakamileyo. Ngaphantsi yiNkundla yesibheno (eyahlulahlulwe kwiZibini neShulumente) kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo, ekwakukho igunya elilawulayo kwiinkundla eziphantsi. Ukuqonda lala malungiselelo akhethekileyo kubaluleke kakhulu kuko nakuphi na ukuphanda komthetho.

Isiphelo: ISiphendu Siyintsika Yokusesikweni

Iqela lenkundla lenkundla alingozo nje itshati yentlangano. Yinkqubo eyenziwe kakuhle elungelelanisa isiphelo nemfuneko yokuzihlola, ihlonela ubuchule bemigangatho eyahlukeneyo, kwaye ikhuthaza iqumrhu lomthetho elingqinelanayo, elithe lamiselwa ngokulandelelana. Kwinkundla yamatyala apho inkundla yabachopheli-tyala iqala ukuva impikiswano kwinkundla ephakamileyo echaza umgaqo-siseko, iqinisekisa ukuba naliphi na ityala linendima ekhethekileyo nebalulekileyo. Kumntu ofuna ukuqonda indlela okuphunyezwa ngayo okusesikweni — nokuba ngumfundi, ugqirha oqeqeqeshiweyo, okanye ummi ofundileyo — kubalulekile ukuyiqonda kakuhle inkundla yenkundla yenkundla. Inika imaphu esihamba ngayo uhambo ngezomthetho, iqinisekisa ukuba lonke ityala lifumana indima efunekayo phantsi komthetho, nokuba umthetho ngokwawo uhlala uqinile kwaye umthetho uqinile.

[[UMTL_BO:0] ngokuphinda-phinda ukufunda kunye nezibonelelo:[[UMTL_1]