UmGaqo-siseko weUnited States ungaphezulu kunento ekhoyo engokwembali; likhusi eliphilayo elikhusela wonke umMelika nxamnye namandla angenakupheliswa ezwe. Ukusukela kwingxoxo yokusekwa ePhiladelphia ukuya kumadabi anamhlanje enkundla ekhohlolwayo, injongo engundoqo yalo xwebhu ihlala ihleli: ukuchaza nokubeka umda negunya likarhulumente ukuze inkululeko yomntu ngamnye iphumelele. Ukuqonda indlela umGaqo-siseko okhusela ngayo urhulumente ngokuchasene negosa, abafundi, nabo bonke abemi abawamkela amalungelo abo. Eli nqaku lihlola izikhuseli ezingundoqo, ukukhuselwa kweBhili-Rhobe, ukukhuselwa kwembali yembali, kunye nemingeni yanamhlanje ebonisa isizathu sokuba ukubhalisa umGaqo-siseko kusoloko kuyimfuneko kubafundisi, abafundi, bonke abemi boluntu abakhululekileyo.

Umsebenzi wesakhelo somGaqo-siseko: Indlela Ezimisela Ngayo Imilinganiselo Yamandla

Abaxhasi bomGaqo-siseko babekrokrela ngamandla apheleleyo. Kuba befumene ubuzwilakhe bukaKumkani uGeorge III, bayila urhulumente oya kuba womelele ngokwaneleyo ukuba asebenze kodwa ophulwe ngokwaneleyo ukuba alawule. Ubuchule bokuyila isiseko badala ($ukwahlula-hlula amagunya, ukujonga nokulinganisela, kunye norhulumente () ukhuseleko lokuqala nolweyona ndlela ihlala ihleliyo nxamnye norhulumente oqhathayo.

Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya

UmGaqo-siseko wahlula urhulumente wesizwe ube ngamasebe amathathu alinganayo: uwiso-mthetho (uMongameli), iGatya lokuLawula (uMongameli), kunye neCandelo lokugweba (iinkundla). IGatya ndinika igunya lowiso-mthetho kwiNgqungquthela, iSigqeba III iimbawu ezilawulayo kuMongameli, kunye neQumrhu II elimisela icandelo lesi-judiary. Isebe ngalinye linomsebenzi okhethekileyo kwaye alinakusebenzisa ngokusemthethweni amandla omnye omnye omnye. Umzekelo, iBhunga libhala imithetho, kodwa uMongameli uyayinyanzela, yaye iinkundla ziyayitolika. Oku kwahlula kuthintela nawuphi na umbutho omnye ukuba wenze, uwise, umisele, kwaye lichaze imithetho yalo yegunya lawo afuna ukuwagweba ngokusemthethweni ukuwagweba.

Ngokwesiko, ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kuye kwahlola ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukuphangwa. Xa uMongameli Franklin Roosevelt ezama ukubeka iNkundla ePhakamileyo ngo1937] ukukhusela umthetho omtsha woSebe, iBhunga kunye noluntu oluye lwatyhalela umva, kwaye isicwangciso asiphumelelanga. Ngokufanayo, xa amaqumrhu aphetheyo edala imithetho ngaphandle kwegunya lomthetho, iinkundla zisoloko ziwabetha njengolwaphulo-mthetho wemfundiso engagunyaziyo.

Iipeksi Nolungelelwano

Xa ulwahlulo lwamagunya ludala amasebe amathathu, uhlolo kunye nolungelelwano lunika isebe ngalinye izixhobo zokuqwalasela nokuthintela ezinye. UMongameli angawukhupha umthetho odluliswe yiKhongqi, kodwa iBhunga linokuwuyeka lo mthetho ngemiba emibini enesithathu. IKhonte eqinisekisa ukuba i-mineines kunye nezivumelwano, ngelixa iNdlu ilawula izihlangu zemali. Isebe liyakwazi ukuchaza imithetho okanye izenzo zesebe ezingalawuliyo ngokuhlola imfazwe, amandla asungulweyo [[FLTY: 0] ukubetha kweNku. [iNkugqibo:]. [[FLTLT:]] [183]. La magunya angenayo aqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linolawulo. Umongameli u-Croulsonman uCriam ohluliyo ngexesha lemfazwe yemfazwe ye-Korea, amandla awenzileyo awenzileyo iNkulawulayo.[5]

Umanyano

Umkhosi wolawulo wahlula igunya phakathi korhulumente wesizwe namazwe. ULawulo lweSihlalo lweshumi luye lwavumela ngokucacileyo ukuba amazwe (okanye abantu) anikwe igunya elinganikwanga urhulumente worhulumente wezwe. Olu lawulo lubini ludala umlinganiselo wokhuseleko: ukuba urhulumente wesizwe ungaba nako ukuphamba, abemi banokubhenela kurhulumente wabo ukuze bafumane ukukhululeka, kwaye bangabi nakukhetha. Ngokwembali, urhulumente uvumele amazwe ukuba asebenze njengeebhungameli zedemo-demokhrasi, azame ngemigaqo-nkqubo ephembelela umthetho kazwelonke kamva. Ithetha nokuba uluntu lugcine i-zibophelele kwimicimbi enjengemfundo, i-Micronica, kunye nempilo kawonke---------wonke apho ukungenelwa kwemilo. Ngokokuthethwa kwetyala kwe-mali ye-Accomptic.[FLD] v [FFF2]

IBhili Yamalungelo: Iinkuselo Ezinenkxaso Kurhulumente

UmGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo wawungaqulathanga mvume yamalungelo, ikhuthaza achasene nomthetho-mthetho ukuba bafune ukhuseleko olucacileyo. IBhili yamaLungelo, eyamkelwa ngowe-1791, iquka ezokuqala ezilishumi zokulungisa kwaye imisela ngqo oko urhulumente wezwe elinokwenza kubantu ngabanye. Nangona la malungelo engaphelelanga, angawona makhaka anamandla omgaqo-siseko nxamnye neentlobo ezithile zobuqhetseba.

Uhlaziyo Lokuqala: Intetho, Unqulo, Indibano Nesibongozo

ISinyuso Sokuqala sikwalela ukwenza naluphi na umgaqo-nkqubo “ukungahloneli ukusekwa konqulo, okanye ukunqanda ukusetyenziswa kwalo ngokukhululekileyo; okanye ukuvalela inkululeko yokuthetha, okanye yemijelo yezindaba; okanye ilungelo labantu lokuhlanganisa ngoxolo, nokubongoza uRhulumente ukuba alungise izityholo.” Oku kulungiswa komthetho okungundoqo wokuthatha inxaxheba kwedemokhrasi. Kukhusela ukungavumelani kwezopolitiki, uqheliso lonqulo, namandla okugxeka urhulumente ngaphandle koloyiko lokuziphindezela. Ityala elifana neBranburg v. [[FLT: 1] kunye nemiyalelo yoluntu idla ngokukhuselwa kwemiqathango yomthetho.

UMthetho Wesine Wokwenziwa Kwazo Zonke Izinto: Ukufuna, Ukuzihlaziya Nokuzifunela Izinto

UHlaliso lwesine lukhusela “ilungelo labantu lokukhusela abantu kubantu babo, izindlu, amaphepha, kunye neziphumo, ngokuphandwa okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula.” Kufuna ukuba kunikwe imvume kuphela ngesizathu esilindelekileyo kwaye kufuneka ichaze indawo yokuphendwa kunye nezinto ezimele ziphathwe. Oku kulungiswa kukusabela okungqalileyo kwimiyalelo jikelele esetyenziswa ngabaphathi-mikhosi baseBritane. Kunyaka wesi-195, uMphengululo weSine unyuselwe ukukhusela iicell, ii-imeyili, kunye ne-GPS. Inkundla ephakamileyo yezomthetho yeNkundla yomkhosi i- i-Carplate v. (2017])) ikholelwa ukuba amapolisa afune ukunikwa kwengxelo yembali ye-cell, ugcino-data lwangoku, ubuchule obusetyenziswa ngaphandle kolawulo olungenakuthelekiswa namagama.

IsiHlaliso sesihlanu: Inkqubo efanelekileyo nokuzithethelela

ISiHlanziso seNhlanu siqulethe iinkuselo ezininzi ezibalulekileyo: ilungelo lokubekwa ityala elibalulekileyo, ukukhuselwa kwingozi ephindwe kabini, ilungelo elichasene nokuzichasa, ukuqinisekisa inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nokwalela ukuthatha impahla ngasese ngaphandle kwembuyiselo. Inkqubo efunekayo yokufumana intlawulo-----(zombini i-produration kunye ne-axinations" iqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu umelwe kukungqinelana naye ukuba alandele iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo ngaphambi kokuba ancine nabani na wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla. Ilungelo elichasene nokuzimela ngokwakhedwa, edume ngokuba “zingela owesihlanu,” liqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu unokunyanzeleka ukuba anikezele ngokuchasene nomthetho. Oku kuyimfuneko ekuwiseni imigaqo yokuncina kwetyala. Oku kuthintela imilinganiselo yomthetho elawulayo, kukwakusetyenziswa ngokwemali ekuhlawuleni imali ekuthengwa yimali ekuthengwa yindawo yoluntu ekuthengwayo.

IsiHlanzi Sesibini, Sesibhozo Neseshumi Elinesibini

UHlaliso lwesiBini lukhusela ilungelo lomntu ngamnye lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo, njengoko kuqinisekiswe [``FLT:0] yi-Diational of Columbia v. Heller (2008). Nangona ilawulwa ngumthetho, ithintela urhulumente ukuba angakwazi ukuphelisa ukuvingca abemi abavinjwa ngumthetho. ULawulo lweSindululo lwesibhozo luthintela ibheyile eninzi, intlawulo olugqithisileyo, nezohlwayo ezingaqhelekanga, ukumisela imida kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho. I-Prentelligement ithi i-ntelligement ayizukuthathwa njengeliselwa okanye ingabi nakugwetyelwa abanye abantu abagcinweyo ngenxa yokunga amalungelo abo. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba umgaqo womthetho ukhuseleko ukhuselwe ngaphandle koluhlu olucacileyo, uthe qhagamelwa ngaphandle kolawulo oluchaneyo, uthelela ngaphandle kwegunya-rhulumente.

Amatyala embali okufikelela okugqithisele korhulumente nokusabela ngokugqithisileyo komGaqo-siseko

Imbali yaseMerika iphawulwa ngamaxesha xa urhulumente egqitha imida yakhe, nomGaqo-siseko (ngoba kuvela kwimithetho yenkundla, inkqubo yowiso-mthetho, okanye ukukhala kukawonke-wonke) oku kubangela ukuba kulungiswe. Uhlolisiso lwale ziganeko lutyhila umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokulondoloza inkululeko.

Imisebenzi YeAlien NeyeSedition (1798)

Idluliswe yiKhomyutha yoLawulo lukaManyano-Manyano kwaye yatyikitywa nguMongameli John Adams, le mithetho mine yajolisa abaphambukeli kunye nabachasi bezobupolitika. UMthetho weSedition wakwenza kwaba lulwaphulo-mthetho ukupapasha “inkohliso, ihlazo, kunye nokubhala okunolunya kurhulumente”. Ukwaphulwa okungqalileyo koMphengululo woQoqo-Mlawuli woMda, isenzo sasetyenziselwa ukuthulisa iDemo-Republican. Nangona iNkuqela leNkundla ePhakamileyo langayekanga nangaze lalawula kwinkcaso yayo ngexesha, izenzo zaphela okanye zaphinda zaphinda zabekwa phantsi ngo-18222. Unyulo luka-ANThost Jefferday lwase luye lwathiwe lwase lungamele ukugxekwa kwana i-Alms.

Internament ye-Japan (1942-1946)

Emva kokuhlasela iZikhundla zePearl, uMongameli uFranklin Roosevelt wakhupha uLungelelo loLawulo oluPhezulu luka-9066, egunyazisa ukufuduswa nokubanjwa kwama-Japan angaphezu kwe-200,000, amashumi amabini anesithathu abo babengabemi base-U. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa inkqubo e Koritatsu v. United States[[FLT:] [1944], ilawula ukuba umkhosi uthethelele ukuchaswa kwamalungelo abantu. Amashumi eminyaka kamva, urhulumente wavuma impazamo yawo: uMthetho weLibers ka 1988 wakhupha ukhupho lwentelo olusemthethweni kunye nokungakhuselwa. [[FLT] [FLD2] [inter.] [iii-Comssionment yowiso lwemfazwe yoluntu] [Foctalment:3] ukhuselwe ukuba uwiso lwesizwe lungamele lungamele lungamele lungamele lukhuselwe, kwaye lungamele ukukhuselwe ngemeko, ukunqandwe ngenxa yezo lwezo lwezopolitiki.

IMcCarthyism kunye neRed Scare (40s-1950s)

Ilungu le-ofisi uJoseph McCarthy kunye neKomiti yeNdlu yeeNkcubeko neHouse Un American Accounting (HUAC) zaphanda ngokutyholwa ngokungena kwenkqubo yobukhomanisi kurhulumente, ezokuzonwabisa, kunye nemfundo. Abantu balunyukiswa, baphulukana nemisebenzi, babanjwa ngenxa yokudelelwa kweBhunga. Ngoxa izenzo zikarhulumente zingaphumelanga ekuvalweni kwabantu abaninzi, baphulukene nokukhuselwa kweSiphelo Sokuqala soMphengululo, baphule ukhuseleko nentetho. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaqalisa ukutyhala emva kwiimeko ezifana . ii-iths v. [1957], nto leyo eyathimba ukusetyenziswa kwemiqatha yemiqathangonyakatho yesizwe, okungasisigxina kwendlela yokusetyenziswa kwemithetho yesizwe, nokusetyenziswa kwemithetho yesizwe phantsi kwemithetho yesizwe phantsi kwemfundiso yesizwe.

Umthetho we-USA PTRIOT kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo wePosi-9/11

Emva kohlaselo lwe-septemba 11, iBhunga leMithetho ye-USA PATRIOT, elandisa amagunya olawulo lukarhulumente phantsi koMthetho wobuNgqila beMasipala (FA). Amalungiselelo avunyelweyo ukuchola ii-wap, ukufikelela kwiingxelo zezoshishino, kunye neemfuno zemfihlelo. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba iCandelo 215 (iiingxelo ze-"gabrary" ilungiselelo) lawuphula umthetho weSine. Ngo-2013, u-Edward Snow’s Snowden's Ukhuseleko lwatyhila ukuba i-National Security Agement (NA) yayiqokelela izininzi zeminxela zezigidi zemfono zomfono. Imingeniselo esemthethweni yalandela, yaye [[FLT] ifuna ukukhusela okuqhubekayo komgaqo-ongo-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho wangoku. kodwa ifuna ukukhusela okuqhubekayo komthetho, kodwa i-Gawulayoku.

Ucelomngeni Lwale Mihla Nokukhuselwa KomGaqo-siseko Okuqhubekayo

Izixhobo neemfundiso ezintsha ezivavanya umGaqo-siseko kwimimandla equka amandla olawulo, ubuchule bokulawula, amandla ongxamiseko nempahla yasekuhlaleni.

Imiyalelo yegunya nesenzo esingahambisaniyo

Abalawuli baye basebenzisa imiyalelo yolawulo kunye nezenzo zolawulo ukudlula kwiNgqungquthela. Ngoxa uMgaqo-siseko unika uMongameli igunya eliphangaleleyo kwimicimbi yamanye amazwe nokhuseleko lwesizwe, imiyalelo yabalawuli basekhaya iphantsi kokuhlolisiswa kwezomthetho. Umzekelo, uMongameli Donald Trump uTrump ukuvalwa kohambo (Umthetho 13769) ucelwe njengocalucalulo lonqulo nokwaphula umthetho ofanelekileyo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ekugqibeleni yaxhasa uhlobo oluhlaziyiweyo kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo [FL:].[FLY][FF:1][AFOLD] [2010] [20]), kodwa ulunyulo lubalase indlela abangabathwali begciji abanokukhangelwa ngayo yinkundla wezonyango. Ngokunjalo, uMongameli uJoe Biden ugunyaziso oluphezulu lwezinzo oluphezulu lweNkusebenza kwiNkusebenza ngokulawulayo.[FFFU.] [202]

Amanani obuqu kunye nobuninzi bukarhulumente

Ukusetyenziswa kweSine soLawulo-Mphetho-Mda kugcino-lwazi lwamanani yindawo ejikeleza ngokukhawuleza. Izicelo zikarhulumente ze-imeyili, ugcino-lwazi lwamafu, kunye nokwenziwa kwendawo zifuna imvume, kodwa ngaphandle koonobumba bokhuseleko besizwe kunye neemeko ezixeliweyo. Imfundiso yeParticle[[[FLT:]], equlethe ulwazi olunezinto ezidibeneyo neqela lesithathu (njengenkampani yemfono) enabantu abangenalo olufanelekileyo olulindele ukuba abantu bangabonwa, luye lwalahlwa yi-[[FT] Carplated v. United States. Kodwa imibuzo ishiyeke malunga ne-data yemizi, izixhobo ezintle, kunye ne-awe-ekhomputhanga. UmGatho-onqatheli aluthethi amanqaku amanani amanani amanani amanani, kodwa imigaqo e-onqandayo, kodwa i-onqanda-odwa ngokungafuni ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yemithetho ye-e.[Flavet][4][Flact.]

Amandla eMbuzo Nempilo Kawonke - wonke

Isifo se-COVID-19 sabona ukusetyenziswa okungakaze kubonwe kwamandla karhulumente kunye norhulumente kaxakeka: ukutshixwa kwamaza, izigunyaziso, ukugonya, kunye nokugxothwa kwe-mostarium. Abaninzi bacelw'elwa njengokwaphula umthetho wenkululeko kunye nenkqubo efunekayo. INkundla ePhakamileyo yavala ukurhoxiswa kweCDC kwi-mostatorum [[FLT: 0]] i-Alabama Association of Modelers v. HS [201] kwaye ifuna ukucinezelwa kwento enzima ye-OSTA ye-ormatry-out. Uxinzelo oluphakathi kwempilo kawonke kunye namalungelo omntu ngamnye alukho lutsha. [1910][3] I-Massachusettston ixhasa ukusetyenziswa kwe-Smatic Chalphiliams. Kodwa ke oku kwemiqatha kwemiqatha lento i-omatiko.[5]

Inkcitho

Urhulumente angathabatha impahla erhanelwa ukuba inxulumene nolwaphulo-mthetho, ngokufuthi ngaphandle kokumangalela umnini wayo ngokumtyhola. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi lo mkhwa uchasene nomthetho ogqithisileyo wesiHlazo se-Angleh Amendment kunye nemithetho efunekayo yeNkqubo yeFind Reformation. Timbs v. Indiana [2029], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikholelwa ukuba umgaqo wesiHlamsmpliconsole owe ngokugqithisileyo usebenza, kodwa uhlaziso lwento efunekayo kwimfuno yephondo, ngeminye imo yephondo, iyaqhubeka ifuna ukuchana kwezaphuli-mthetho phambi kokulahleka. Umba ubonisa indlela okumele kunyanzelwe ngayo ukunqanda urhulumente ukuba umgangatho wempahla orhwayiwe.

Izifundo: Ukhuselo lomgaqo-siseko wokufundisa

Ukuqonda umGaqo-siseko asiyonto nje efunekayo kwimfundo. Ootitshala banendima ebalulekileyo ekulungiseleleni abafundi ukuba baqonde baze baxhathise ukuphamba. Ngokudibanisa imfundo yezomGaqo-siseko kwiklasi, abafundisi-mfundo banokunika isizukulwana esilandelayo amandla okuphakamisa amalungelo abo.

Iimfundiso zegumbi lokufundela

  • [[UMTL: 0] Sebenzisa imithombo engundoqo: Abafundi bafunde umbhalo womGaqo-siseko, amaPhepha oManyano, kunye neembono zeNkundla ePhakamileyo. Abalawuli belizwe [ banika iikopi zamanani ezikhululekileyo.
  • Iziganeko zangoku ezidityanisiweyo: dibanisa imigaqo-siseko kumabali eendaba malunga nokuhlola, ukuqhankqalaza, amalungelo okuvota, kunye nemiyalelo yolawulo. Khuthaza abafundi ukuba babuze: Liliphi isebe likarhulumente elisebenzayo? Ingaba ikhona i-check ekhoyo? Yiyiphi i-asethi esengozini?
  • Imingeni yomgaqo-siseko: unabafundi abadlala indima njenge komiti elawulayo kwinkundla yemot, bephikisana omabini amacala emeko enjenge Korumatsu okanye [FLT] i-Calcenter. Oku kwenza uluvo olunengqwalasela kunye novelwano kwiimbono ezininzi.
  • [[NTLT: 0] Izifundo zembali zophando ngobunzulu: Yabela iiprojekthi zophando kwiMithetho ye-Alien ne-Sedtion, intsebenziswano yeJapan, okanye ukuva kwe-McCArthy. Abafundi banganikela oko kufunyanisiweyo ngezizathu, iziphumo, kunye nezifundo zomgaqo-siseko.
  • [ Abathethi abathelekisayo abandwendwe: Abalawuli, abagwebi, okanye abameli benkululeko yabemi banganika ingqiqo yehlabathi yokwenene yendlela ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko olusebenza ngayo.
  • Ichaza imida yamalungelo: amalungelo omGaqo-siseko awaphelelanga. Uncedo abafundi bayaqonda xa intetho inokuthi ilawule (umz., ukunyenyisa, ukuphengulula) naxa uphengululo lusengqiqweni (umz., iimeko ezichanekileyo). Oku kuthintela ukuthambeka “konke kuyavunyelwa” iimbono.

Imfundo engokomGaqo-siseko eqalayo nengaguquguqukiyo yakha abemi abangawaqondi nje amalungelo abo kodwa abakwazi nokuwakhusela.

Isiphelo

UmGaqo-siseko asingokuzidityanisa. Kuxhomekeke kwityala elithenjiweyo, iinkundla ezizimeleyo, nakumagosa ameleyo ahlonela imiqathango ebekwe kuwo. Ukusuka kukwahlulwa kwamagunya kunye neBhili yamaLungelo ukuya kwizifundo ezinzima zembali ezifana nokungaphumeleli kweMelika, umyalezo ucacile: urhulumente oqhathayo sisilingo esizingisileyo, kwaye kuphela ukuphaphaphazanyiswa komthetho-siseko okungasithintela. Abafundisi-Mgaqo-siseko bafundisa izixhobo zokuzilawula ngokwabo kunye neSikolo samaLungelo (*) indlela yokuqonda xa umgca phakathi kokhuseleko nenkululeko unqamlene, indlela yokusebenzisa iinkundla nebhokisi zebhoti ukunyanzela umva, nendlela yokuxabisa inkululeko ngaphezu kokuzisebenzela. Njengoko abaqondisi beqonda, ixabiso lenkululeko liyiyo. UmGaqo-siseko sinikela intelekelelo-ngqalelo lwendlu nganye.