Ingcamango yokuhlola nokulinganisela ligumbi lesiseko somGaqo-siseko waseUnited States, elenzelwe ukuthintela naliphi na isebe likarhulumente ekufumaneni amandla angathintelekiyo. Le nkqubo isekelwe kwintanda-bulumko yezobupolitika yaseMontesquieu kunye neyokuhlulwa ngooTata abaFuququlunqiweyo, le nkqubo yahlula igunya phakathi kwemithetho, igqwesiswa, kunye namasebe eejaji. Isebe ngalinye linamagunya ahlukeneyo, kodwa likwanamandla okumisela izenzo zabanye. Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba ulawulo luhlala lusebenzisana, lunetyala, luze lukhusele inkululeko yabantu ngabanye. Ukuqonda indlela isebe ngalinye elihlola ngayo abanye eliyimfuneko ngayo ukuva amandla olawulo-demokhrasi lwaseMelika.

Isebe Elisemthethweni: Ingqungquthela njengesebe lokuqala

Isebe lowiso-mthetho, eliyilwe ngokuyintloko yiBhunga, linembopheleleko yokwenza imithetho. Lineegumbi ezimbini: iNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNdlu ze-ofisi neNdlu yabameli. Esi sakhiwo ngokwaso sisebenza njenge-chezu langaphakathi, njengoko zombini ezi zindlu kufuneka zivumelane ngomthetho phambi kokuba zithunyelwe kuMongameli. Ngapha koko, iBhunga lisebenzisa izixhobo ezininzi ezinamandla ukukhangela amasebe aphetheyo nawaselugwebini.

& Cacisa Iphepha

UMongameli angakhupha nawuphi na umthetho odluliswe yiBhunga, kodwa ukuba iveto ayiphelelanga. IBhunga lingayigqitha i-veto ephethe umongameli kunye nesithathu sesininzi sovoti kwindlu nakwiNdlu yeNdlu. Oku kufuna ukuba kubekho ukubhatala okukhulu, okukwenza kube nzima ukufikelela kodwa kube nzima xa kukho isivumelwano esinamandla. Iimfuno zembali zinqabile kodwa zibalulekile, njengokulawula kukaMongameli Andrew Johnson kutsho kwi-veto ka-Rhulumente wamalungelo kaNomfamanto ka-18666, nto leyo eyancedayo ukuseka amalungelo obumi baseAfrika.

Amandla Okufikelela

Indlu yabameli inamandla okuphelisa amagosa karhulumente, kuquka uMongameli, uMongameli onguMongameli, kunye nabagwebi. Indlu yeNdlu yeNdlu yemikhosi iqhuba ityala, ineevoti ezimbini-ntathu ezifunekayo ukuze ikhutshelwe kwaye isuswe eofisini. Le nkqubo iye yasetyenziswa nxamnye noMongameli Andrew Johnson, uBill Clinton, noDonald Trump (ice), nangona kungekho Presidenti ebon. IBhempe isebenza njengendlela yomgaqo-siseko yokuhlola ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwamandla, ukonakala, okanye ulwaphulo-mthetho ophezulu.

Isiqinisekiso Sedinga

INdlu yeNdlu yeQela kufuneka iqinisekise uninzi lweeNkqutyana zikaMongameli, kuquka amalungu eKhabhinethi, iijaji zesizwe, kunye nee-arhente. Le ndima “yokusebenza nokuvuma” ivumela iNdlu yeeNgwebo ukuba ihlolisise iimfaneleko zabathathi-nxaxheba kunye notyekelo lwezopolitiko. Inkqubo yokuqinisekisa ingaba yeyokulwa, njengokuba ibonwa kumadabi angaphezulu eNkundla ePhakamileyo njengoRobert Bork ngo1992 kunye noBrett Kavanaugh ngo-201818. Ngokugatya okanye ukulibazisa ama-amnemone, iNtsi ingalongalulo lomgaqo olawulo kunye namasebe ejaji.

Ulawulo lweNgxongo

IBhunga liphethe amandla esipaji--"igunyazisa yonke irhafu yerhafu yemali nerhafu karhulumente. Oku kunika isebe elikhulu elinomthetho elisebenzisa isebe elilawulayo. Ngaphandle kokusetyenziswa kwamasebe alawulayo, amaqumrhu alawulayo akanakusebenza ngokunempumelelo. Ukuba uMongameli akavumi ukusebenzisa imali njengemigaqo yeBhunga, iBhunga linokusebenzisa amandla alo ukunyanzela ukuthotyelwa. Iingxoxo zoqingqo-mali ziye zakhokelela ekuvalweni koorhulumente, njengoko kwenzeka ngo-2013 nango-20202019, ebonisa ubunzima bale ngxaki.

Ukulawula Nophando

IBhunga linegunya lokuphanda isebe eliphetheyo nokuphatha amatyala. Iikomiti ezikhoyo zisoloko zisenza amaxwebhu angaphantsi kwepoena zize zimeme amangqina ukuba ahlole ukuphunyezwa kwenkqubo, okuthenjiwe ukuba kukunganyaniseki, okanye ukulahlwa kwenkunkuma. Imizekelo ephezulu-profile iquka ukuchotshelwa kwetyala lamanzi, uphando lwe-Iran-Contra, kunye nekomiti ye-6 kaJanuwari. Ukubekwa phambili kuqinisekisa ukubonakala nokuphendula, kunyanzelela umphathi ukuba athethelele izenzo zakhe.

“ Ukuhlanganiswa kwawo onke amagunya, uwiso-mthetho, ulawulo, kunye nejaji... kusenokuchazwa ngokufanelekileyo njengendlela yokulawula.” — James Madison, Federal List No. 47

Isebe elinolawulo oluphezulu: IKhosi njengesenzo sokulwa nobunzima

Isebe elilawulayo, elikhokelwa nguMongameli waseUnited States, linembopheleleko yokumisa imithetho. Amandla kaMongameli anamandla, kodwa ahlolwa yiBhunga kunye nejaji. I-checkers ephambili yesebe eliphetheyo iquka iveto, imiyalelo yegunya, amalungiselelo, kunye neqhinga lokunyanzelisa.

Umbane weVeto

UMongameli angasichasa nasiphi na isibhaka-mali esidluliswa yiKhonkxa-mali, esithintela ukuba sibe ngumthetho ngaphandle kokuba sikhanyisiwe. Le ndawo inyanzelisa amandla ukuba iqwalasele izinto eziza kuqala zikaMongameli kwaye incokole. Ziintlobo ezimbini zevetos: iveto eqhelekileyo, ebuyisela ityala kwiBhunga, kwaye ipokotho, eyenzekayo xa uMongameli engenzi nto ngeentsuku ezilishumi xa iBhunga libambene, ngokunempumelelo libulala ityala. Ezinye izikhulu zikarhulumente zinemibambo ezingo zomgca-toes, kodwa iNkundla Ephakamileyo ilawula ukuba i-sicangcingo yomthetho yomthetho ([[FLT:]][0] Clinton.vn, isiXeko saseNew York,[FLT]

Imiqathango yecandelo

Abalawuli bangayikhupha imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo ukuba ilathise amaqumrhu karhulumente ekuzalisekiseni imithetho okanye ekwenzeni inkqubo. Le miyalelo ingumthetho wesebe eliphetheyo kodwa kufuneka imiswe kwigunya elikhoyo lomthetho okanye kumGaqo-siseko. Imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo inokucelwwa enkundleni okanye ipheliswe ngumthetho. Umzekelo, uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Greek Order 9066, eyagunyazisa amaMerika ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi II, kamva yagwetywa ngokuba yinkundla ephakamileyo. Umongameli uBarack Oma waving waving'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.

Idinga laBagwebi

UMongameli umisa bonke abagwebi besizwe, kuquka abagwebi beNkundla Ephakamileyo. Eli gunya livumela uMongameli ukuba abumbe isigwebo kangangamashumi eminyaka, njengoko amadinga egweba ehlala ekho. Ii-minee zimele ziqinisekiswe yiNdlu yeeNtsimi, zenze ingxilonga engqalileyo lisebe lemithetho. Ijaji, nayo, inokuqinisekisa uMongameli ngokulawula ukuba izenzo zegunya eliphetheyo azimiselwanga ngokomthetho. Ngalo ndlela inkqubo yesivumelwano idala inkqubo edityanisiweyo yomlinganiselo womanyano.

Amandla omgaqo-nkqubo wasemzini kunye nomyaleli-okanye oyintloko

UMongameli usebenza njengentloko-ntloko yemikhosi exhobileyo kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo yamanye amazwe, kuquka ukwenza izivumelwano (ngecebiso leNdlu yemikhosi kunye nemvume) kwaye ukwamkela oorhulumente bamanye amazwe. Noko ke, kuphela iBhunga elinguMbutho elinokwazisa imfazwe lize lixhase umkhosi. Olu xinezeleko lukhokelele kwiimfazwe zamandla, njengemfazwe yaseVietnam kunye nongenelelo lwango-2011 eLibya. Isigqibo semfazwe soburhulumente sowe-1997 sazama ukuphinda senze i-Bhunga-Bhunga ngokufuna uMongameli ukuba azise iBhunga kwisithuba seeyure ezingama-48 zemfazwe, nokurhoxanduku emkhosiniswe nemikhosi emva kweentsuku ezingama-60 ukuba uBhunga alivumi ukuqhubeka kwesenzo.

Amandla ePardon

UMongameli unamandla okuxolela amatyala karhulumente, ngaphandle kwakwiimeko zokungancomi. Eli gunya lisebenza njengovavanyo kwijaji ngokuvumela uMongameli ukuba alawule iinkolelo okanye izivakalisi ezithe tye. Imbambano ixolelwa, njengoMongameli Gerald Ford uxolela uRichard Nixon noMongameli uDonald Trump, ukulinganisa ububanzi beli gunya. Ngoxa igunya lokuxolela lingoyiswa, liphantsi koluvo lukawonke-wonke kunye neziphumo zezobupolitika.

Isebe Lezaphuli - mthetho: INkundla Ephakamileyo njengoArbiter

Isebe lejaji, elikhokelwa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo, lichaza imithetho lize liqinisekise ukuba ziyavumelana nomGaqo-siseko. Ngokuhlolisisa okugweba, iinkundla zingazenza zibe buthathaka izenzo zamasebe owiso-mthetho kunye namasebe alawulayo. Isebe lejaji lenzelwe ukuba lizimele, abagwebi besebenzisa izigwebi zobomi ngexesha lokuziphatha okuhle ukuze bawakhusele kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika.

Impinda yezeejaji

Amandla ohlolo lwetyala lokugweba asekwa kwityala lephawu Madison (1803). IJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall yavakalisa ukuba ngumsebenzi wesebe lezomthetho ukuchaza oko umthetho, kwaye ukuba umthetho uyawuphula umthetho, iNkundla mayiwubethe phantsi. Le meko imisela isalathisi somthetho wenkundla sorhulumente ukuphelisa ukungaquququzeli imithetho. Ukususela ngoko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yagawula amakhulukhulu emithetho yesizwe nemithetho karhulumente, kuquka nomthetho omtsha we-Diarector kwi1930 kunye nomgca we-'152098.

Ukutolikwa Kwemithetho

Iinkundla kuwo onke amanqanaba achaza imimiselo, imimiselo, kunye nemimiselo yezomgaqo-siseko. Imithetho yazo inokuba neziphumo ezitsha kwinkqubo. Umzekelo, ukutolikwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yeCommerce Claus in Wickard v. Filburn (42)[FL:1] yandisa amandla olawulo lwamagunya karhulumente, ngelinye ixesha amatyala akhoyo afana nenani le-National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebel () ukunciphisa imidalo yamandla eBhunganiso phantsi kwe-Precious Claus. Iinkundla zikwacacisa iintsingiselo zemithetho engacacanga, maxa wazisa iziphumo ezifana neziphumo ezingakhange zigqityelwe yiprovicession.

Ukukhuselwa Kwamalungelo

Ijudiaary ingunogada obalulekileyo wamalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye norhulumente ochaphazelekayo. Ngemeko ezinjenge Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954), imanda v. Arizona [1966], , kunye ] Obergfell v. Hodges (2015), iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo iqhubele izikhuselo zomgaqo-siseko ukwenzela ukulingana, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye , kunye nelungelo lobuqu. Ezi zigqibo maxa zingqungquthelana nezikhethwayo ze-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko, kodwa ibophelele ngaphandle kokuba ibotshelelwe yinkundla yenkundla okanye inkundla ephethe.

Ukukhangela Amandla Omthetho

IKhomishini ayinakumisa imithetho echasene noMgaqo-siseko. Inkundla imisela ukuba umthetho ugqitha igunya lombutho okanye uvukela amalungelo. Umzekelo, iNkundla iye yabetha imithetho yokulawula ukuphatha imipu kufutshane nezikolo ( United States v. Lopez, 1995) kunye namalungiselelo oRhamo loGunyamezelo oluchasene namalungelo oMdama ( United States v. Morrison, 2000] [ngamandla angaphaya kwamandla eBhunga. Ngokuphikisanayo, iNkuphakamisa amandla ombuso kwezinye iindawo, ibonisa isenzo sokulinganisa ngenyameko.

Ikhangela kumandla olawulo

Ijudiadiary ikwasikel'ulawulo oluphezulu. Inkundla ingavala imiyalelo yegunya eliphetheyo eligqitha igunya elisesikweni okanye elophula amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Abaselula bakwi-Stown Sheep & Tube. Co. Sayer (1952), iNkundla ePhakamileyo inokwenza umthetho wesigqeba esilawulayo we-Truman owenziwe ngelixa lemfazwe yase Korea. Ngokukwanjalo, iNkundleko iye yaziphinde yahlola iintambo eGuantanamo Bay, ilawula ukuba abachokoshele banamalungelo e-[[[FLT] [FLT] Bhoumedienqueece. v[FLT], 2008, izigqibo ezi zinto eziqinisekisa ukuba uMongameli akanawongameko.

Intshukumo phakathi kwamasebe: Inkqubo Enamandla

Unxulumano phakathi kwamasebe amathathu ludala ulungelelwano oluqhubekekayo olutshintsha-tshintshayo lwamandla. Isebe ngalinye kufuneka lisebenzisane ukulawula ngokunempumelelo, kodwa uxanduva lokwakha lusoloko lukhokelela kwingxabano kunye nengxoxo. Olu nxibelelwano luchaza ukusebenza kwehlabathi lokwenene lokuhlola nolungelelwaniso.

Intsebenziswano Yomthetho- Yezahluleloaction

IKhomishini kunye noMongameli basoloko besebenzisana ukudlulisa umthetho, kodwa ukungavisisani kungakhokelela ekuqhubeni phambilini kunye nokugqitha. Inkqubo yoqingqo-mali yonyaka ichaza oku kuxinezeleka. UMongameli ucebisa ukuba kwenziwe uqingqo-mali, kodwa iKhomishini ilusebenzisa iindleko zezicelo zezicelo. Ukuba uMongameli usongela iveto, ingxoxo ilandela. Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, ukunqanda ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zoqingqo-mali kukhokelela ekuqhubekeni phambili kwezigqibo, i-ombhuziski echitha iindleko, kunye nokucima. Ngaphezu koko, isebe eliphethe kufuneka lisebenzise imithetho njengoko kubhaliwe, kodwa linelungelo lokulawula ukugcinwa kwemiqathangongoma, i-a i-a Congresstings i-opera i-more ngokuva nokugcinwa kwemiqathango

Ukusebenza kwentsebenziswano yezahlulelo-

Isebe elilawulayo linyanzelisa imimiselo yokugweba, kodwa likwaphembelela ukuvalwa kwemithetho ngokwezindululo. Abameli bangadibanisa abagwebi abavumelana nentanda-bulumko yabo engokwasemthethweni, ngaloo ndlela belungisa utoliko lwezomGaqo-siseko lwexesha elizayo. INkundla ePhakamileyo, noko ke, ingakwazi ukubetha izenzo zolawulo, njengoko kwenzeka kuMongameli Trump ukuvalwa kohambo . Hawaii[FLTM] v. [2017] [2018]) (nakuba iNkunye iNkugqiba kuthiwelo iNkukhundla ixhase uguqulelo). Ilungelo loMphathiswa-omatili limele ukuvelisa ilungelo lokunxibelelana kwesondo ngaphakathi..

Ukungenelela okuzizizo

IKhomishini ingaphendula kwimimiselo yezomthetho ngeendlela ezininzi. Ingacebisa ulungiso lomgaqo-siseko lokubhukuqa izigqibo, ezifana noMphetho-mda we-11 (ukuguquka [[FLT: 0]]] Georgia) kunye noMphetho-Mda we-14 (ukutshintsha ]Dred Scott v. Sandford). Ngokuqhelekileyo, iBhunga linokudlulisela umthetho omtsha wokuguqula isiphumo somthetho wenkundla, njengoko wenzayo ngeMthethwe yeNkuhlela ephakamileyo yoMthetho weNkulungisa umgaqo, nangona ingenakukwazi ukuwususa umgaqo weNkulungisa iNkundla ePhakakhulu. Ityala isetyenziswa ngokunqabileyo kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo. [FLT.4] I-Activemond [1:]

Ukwahlukana Kwamandla Ekuqheliseleni: Imizekelo Ebalaseleyo

Iziganeko eziliqela eziphawulekayo zibonisa indlela yokuhlola nokulungelelanisa okwenzekayo:

  • Ingxaki yeNew Deal Crisis (1930s): uMongameli Franklin Roosevelt wacebisa ukuba kuthathwe umthetho wezoqoqosho otshayelelayo, lowo iNkundla Ephakamileyo yawubetha njengengathanga. Roosevelt yaphendula ngesicelo “sokudibanisa izigwebi zekhostili, le mithetho yeBhunga eyalahlwayo. Oku kuphumela ekuzitheni “kutshintshwa ngexesha elisithoba,” njengoko iNkuNkundla iqala ukuxhasa imithetho etsha ye-Irejini, ibonakalisa iingcinezelo zezobupolitika kwinkululeko yezomthetho.
  • Watergate (1973-1974): Congress yaphanda ukubandakanywa kolawulo lweNixon kwicandelo leWatergate. INkundla ePhakamileyo yayalela uMongameli Nixon ukuba akhuphe iitepi ezirekhodiweyo, nto leyo eyakhokelela ekubeni aphume. Inkqubo yokurhoxa kwiNdlu yayinguvavanyo oluthe ngqo lwemithetho kumandla olawulo oluphezulu.
  • UMthetho we-Affordble Care Act (202): Congress yadlula kwi-ACA ngo-2010. Imingeni emininzi engomthetho yafikelela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, eyaxhasa ugunyaziso lomntu ngamnye njengerhafu kodwa ulwando olusikelwe umda. Amasebe ezobupolitika ngoko aguqula iinxenye zomthetho ukuphendula kwimimiselo yenkundla.
  • Ilungelo elipheleleyo kunye neKhongolo ejongene noLawulo (209-2020): Ngexesha lokuyalelwa kokuqala kukaMongameli Donald Trump, isebe eliphetheyo alavuma ukuthobela amapopu asezantsi ase House, liqinisekisa ilungelo eliphezulu. Ekugqibeleni iinkundla zagqiba kwelokuba owayesakuba yilungu wendlu kaLungu uDon McGahn makangqine, aqinisekise igunya lobuveleli beBhunga.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko: Umbangi woManyano No. 51

James Madison, kuFederalist No. 51, wachaza ngokuphandle imfuneko yokuxilonga nokulungelelana: “Kumele kwenziwe ulwalo lokulwa nephulo.” Waphikisa ukuba isebe ngalinye kufuneka libe nomnqweno walo kwaye lixhomekeke ekufutshane kangangoko kunokwenzeka kwezinye. UmGaqo-siseko usasaza amagunya ukuze isebe ngalinye linike ihendo kwezinye ezimbini, lithintele ubuzwilakhe. UMadison waphawula ngokucacileyo ukuba isebe lemithetho linamandla kakhulu kwaye ngoko kufuneka livavanywe njengezindlu ezimbini kwaye likhangelwe ngumphathi-veto kunye nophengululo lwezahlulelo.

“ Ukuba abantu bebezizithunywa zezulu, bekungayi kubakho mfuneko yarhulumente. Ukuba iingelosi bezingalawula abantu, bekungayi kubakho mfuneko yokulawula urhulumente ngaphandle nangaphakathi.” — UJames Madison, uFederalist No. 51

Oku kuqonda kusengundoqo ekuqondeni isizathu sokuba abaseki benkqubo yomthetho, isebe elilawulayo, kunye namasebe eejaji ngalinye linamagunya ahlukeneyo kodwa adibanisayo. Umzekelo, uMongameli umisa abagwebi, kodwa iNdlu yeeNdlu ziyabaqinisekisa; iBhunga yenza imithetho, kodwa uMongameli uyakwazi ukuchaza imithetho, kodwa isalathisi somthetho, kodwa iBhunga linokucebisa ukupheliswa. Le mibutho idibanisa ikhupha amandla kwaye ifuna intsebenziswano eqengqele kuwo onke amasebe, lo gama isenza ukuba kugcinwe inkululeko yoluntu.

Iingxaki Neengxaki Zangoku

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela ayikhange igxekwe. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi ingakhokelela kwiqhina eliphambili, ingakumbi kumaxesha karhulumente owahlulekileyo, apho elinye iqela lilawula umongameli kunye nenye indlu yeBhunga. Oku kungaphumela ekulibaziseni ukubekwa, ukuvalwa korhulumente, nokungakwazi ukuphendula imicimbi yesizwe engxamisekileyo. Abanye baphikisa ukuba ulwandiso lwamandla olawulo ngemiyalelo yolawulo kunye nesenzo esingalandeliyo sithoba umlinganiselo ocetyisiweyo. Unyuko lwamaziko olawulo ludla ngokubizwa “isebe lesine”. [amaxesha amaninzi kubizwa“ isebe lesine"" / "ii-aslective quagis, i- quaxianti- xex, kunye ne- quanti- judiactic tractial action.

Kanti inkqubo ingqineke iqinile. Iinkundla ziyaqhubeka zisemida yamapolisa, iBhunga liyaqhubeka lilawula isikhwakhwa semali kunye nolawulo, kwaye uMongameli usengathatha inyathelo elipheleleyo kwiimeko ezimaxongo, phantsi kokuhlolisiswa kamva. Ukusetyenziswa kwamandla kuqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe linokulawula ngokusisigxina, kwaye imfuneko yokulalanisa isoloko iyinxalenye engundoqo yolawulo lwamaMerika.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela ibalulekile ekulondolozeni urhulumente wedemokhrasi ohlonela umthetho kunye nokhuseleko lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ngokuqinisekisa ukuba ulungelelwano lomthetho, ulawulo, namasebe agwebayo lungamisela amagunya omnye nomnye, umGaqo-siseko wase-U. ukhuthaza ukuphendula, uphando, kunye nenkululeko. Ukusuka kumthetho kunye nokungagqibeleli kulawulo lwezomthetho kunye nokulawula ngemali, isebe ngalinye lisebenzisa izixhobo ezahlukileyo ezilondoloza umlinganiselo. Ukuqonda oku kubalulekile kumntu ngamnye, njengoko kubalasekubaluleke ukubaluleka kombutho wezezentlalo kunye nokukhuselwa komgaqo womgaqo-siseko. Ingqonga abaquququki bomthetho abatshayo abangekhonanze urhulumente ogqibeleleyo kodwa ekuyileni inkqubo esoloko isebenzisa amandla nokuthintela ngokhuphiswano olulungeleyo phakathi kwamasebe.