Ooyise belizwe le-United States basungula inkqubo karhulumente engafaniyo nayo nayiphi na ebonwa ngaphambili — omnye owenzelwe ngabom ukulinganisela igunya nokukhusela inkululeko yabantu. Amehlo abo avela kumava angqalileyo okulawula kweBritane, ufundo olunzulu lwentanda-bulumko yezobupolitika, kunye nokuqonda okungathintelekiyo okukhokelela ekusebenziseni igunya ngokungenasiphelo. Ngokuhambisa amandla phakathi kwamasebe ahlukeneyo, uhlolo oluqinileyo kunye nokulinganisela, kwaza kwabangela ukwakhiwa kwamalungelo asisiseko, okwanyamezelayo kangangeenkulungwane ezimbini. Kodwa ukulungelelana kwabo akuzange kuhlale kuhleli; kudinga ukuphaphaphazanyiswa nokulungiswa okuqhubekayo njengoko kuvela imiqobo, isakhiwo, kunye nemiqobo, kwaye ixanduku eqhubekayo echaza amalungelo asisiseko oonorhulumente abasunguli.

Isiseko Esibunzululwazi: Imbono Yokukhanyiselwa

IMvukelo yaseMerika yayingeyomfazwe nje yokuzimela geqe — yayiyimvukelo engobulumko eyayisekelwe kwingcamango yokukhanyiselwa. Ootata abasisiseko babesuka kakhulu kwizithandi zobulumko zaseYurophu ababethandabuza ilungelo likaThixo lookumkani nababeluthandabuza amalungelo okwemvelo, ulongamo oluthandwayo, nokwahlula amagunya. Iinkcuba - buchopho ezintathu ngokukhethekileyo zayila iplani yazo yesiseko somgaqo-siseko: uJohn Locke, uMontesquieu, noJean-Jacques Rousseauseau.

UJohn Locke Namalungelo Emvelo

John Locke's Isivumelwano soburhulumente (1689) saphikisa ngelithi bonke abantu banamalungelo emvelo obomi, inkululeko, kunye nempahla. Oorhulumente, babambana, baphila kuphela ngesivumelwano soluntu kunye nabalawulwa kwaye kufuneka bakhusele loo malungelo. Ukuba urhulumente uyayaphula isivumelwano, abantu banelungelo lokuvukela. UThomas Jefferson uvoneted Locke kulwimi lwenkululeko, engenisa "Uluyilo" ukwenzela "ukulunga" ukwandisa ingcamango. Lonke iingcamango zinika isiseko sokuziphatha sokwahlula igunya likarhulumente — urhulumente ongenakusuka nje uthabathe amalungelo awo alungelelaniswe nolungelelaniswa.

UMontesquieu Nokwahlukana Kwamagunya

UBaron de Montesquieu's Umoya woMthetho (1748) waphembelela kakhulu isakhiwo somGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. Montesquieu waphikisa kwelokuba ukuthi ukunqanda ulawulo oluphezulu, amandla karhulumente kufuneka kwahlulwe abe yimithetho, umphathi onegunya, namasebe agwebayo, ngamnye ozimeleyo nokwaziyo ukuvavanya amanye. Waphawula ukuba kwi-republic, uxilongo lwamandla kumzimba omnye ngokungenakunqandwa. Ooyise besamkela lo mgaqo, bedala inkqubo apho kungekho sebe linokulawula. James Magnides, [FLT:] ku-Noc.[52]

URousseau Nolongamo Lwehlabathi Oluthandwayo

Ingcamango kaJean-Jacques Rousseau iyakugxininisa ukuba igunya elisemthethweni lifumaneka ngokuvumelana kwabantu. Ngoxa umsebenzi kaRousseau wawungaqondakali, waqinisa ukuzinikela kwabaseki kulawulo oluphambili — ingcamango yokuba urhulumente umele asekelwe kwimvume yabalawulwayo. Lo mgaqo uboniswe kwiNdlu yabameli, kunyulo olungqalileyo, nakumagama okuvula eMgaqo-siseko: "Thina bantu".

Ezi mpembelelo zokukhanya zadityaniswa zabangela ukuba kubekho ingcamango ekhethekileyo yaseMerika: urhulumente owafumana amandla akhe ebantwini, owasetyenziswa ngamaziko awahlukeneyo, yaye ngokuyintloko wawukho ukuze ukhusele amalungelo abantu.

Umsebenzi wesakhelo somGaqo-siseko: Amasebe Amathathu Neengcebiso kunye nolungelelwano

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., owagunyaziswa ngo-1788, waseka irepublic karhulumente enamasebe amathathu alinganayo. Ootata abasekayo babala ngobuchule amagunya kwiZixhobo I, II, ne III, kodwa badala amagunya angenaniyo ukuze isebe ngalinye likwazi ukuxhathisa ukungenelela kwabanye. Le nkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela yayiyinkqubo engundoqo yokuthintela naliphi na isebe elinye ekufumaneni amandla amaninzi kakhulu.

Isebe Lomthetho: Eyokuqala Phakathi Kwabantu Abalinganayo

Inqaku I liphakamisa onke amagunya owiso-mthetho kwiBhunga, eliyilwe yiNdlu yabameli kunye neNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNtsimbi. Indlu yayiyilelwe ukuba ilungelelanise abantu ngokuthe ngqo — inyulwe rhoqo emva kweminyaka emibini kwaye yahlulwe ngabantu. IBhunga lalimela amaphondo ngokulinganayo, nakade kathandathu eminyaka ukulungiselela ukuzinza nokuhlola iminqweno ethandwayo. Esi sakhiwo se-biobaral ngokwaso sasinomlinganiselo: amaphondo amakhulu ayenolungelelwaniso kwiNdlukwano kwiNdlu; amaphondo amancinane ayehamba ngokulingana kwiNtsimbini. Nawaphi na umthetho wawufuna ukuvunywa kuwo omabini amagumbi.

IBhunga linamagunya abalulekileyo: ukurhabanisa, ukuchitha iindleko, ukuvakalisa imfazwe, ukulawula urhwebo, kunye nokulawula umongameli. Kodwa la mandla akhangelwa ngumphathi ophetheyo (veto) kunye nogwebo lwejaji (uhlolo lomthetho). Ngaphezu koko, iNdlu yeeNdlu kufuneka iqinisekise ukumiselwa komongameli kunye nezivumelwano ze-raftive, ngoxa iNdlu yeNdlu iqalisa iindleko zemali. Abasunguli benza ngabom iBhunga lesebe elinamandla, bekholelwa ukuba indlu yowiso-mthetho yangamele ukuba ingabi nabugqwalaseli ngaphezu kwesikhulu esinye — kodwa kwakhona bakhele ngokukhusela ukugqweqwela kwemithetho.

Isebe elinoLawulo oluPhezulu: Amandla anetyala

Inqaku II lenza isigqeba esiphetheyo esikhokelwa nguMongameli, osebenza njengentloko yesizwe, umphathi-mikhosi, kunye nomlawuli omkhulu. Abaseki baxhalabele ukunikwa komongameli onamandla agqithisileyo — ulawulo oluphezulu, amandla okumisa, nomyalelo womkhosi — kodwa ababengenamphathi. Kwesinye isandla babesoyika ukuphinda banike ulawulo lokumkani.

IBhunga lingayidlulisa i-veto nge-3-3-iinkokhelo, ivunywa okanye yaliwa amadinga, i-etheagne kwaye isuse umongameli, kunye nemali exhaswayo. I-judicary ingavakalisa imisebenzi yegunya elilawulayo ingekho semthethweni. Ixesha lomongameli lizinziswe kwiminyaka emine, kodwa unyulo lufuna inkxaso eqhubekayo. Olu mlinganiselo uvumela "ukungavunyelwangalawuleki," njengoko uAlexander Hamilton wabhala ku- Federalist No. 70, ngexa ukhuphiso oluphezulu lufuna ukuba ube ngumlawuli olawulayo.

Isebe Lejaji: Isebe Elilimpukane Liyingozi

IGatya III elimisela iNkundla ePhakamileyo lize livumele iNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba imisele iinkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente. Ijaji yenzelwe ukuba izimele — abagwebi basebenzela ubomi ngexesha lokuziphatha okuhle kwaye imivuzo yabo ayinakuncitshiswa. Oku kukhutshwa kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika kuqinisekisa ukuba banokuwuchaza umthetho ngokungakhethi, kwanangeminqweno yenkoliso okanye amanye amasebe.

Amandla okuhlola okugweba — ukukwazi ukubetha imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ezichasene noMgaqo-siseko — awachazwanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kodwa amiswa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi Marbury v. Madison [1803]. Eli gunya linika ijudicary uhlolo olubalulekileyo kuzo zombini iiKhonkqu zomGaqo-siseko okanye umongameli. Noko ke, ijudicary ngokwayo ikhangelwa ngumphathi (omisela abagwebi) kunye nendlu yowiso-mthetho (oko kuqinisekisa kwaye kunokuthi kumiselwe umGaqo-siseko ukuba babhukuthe izigwebo). Abaquli bajonga isebe lejajidiza njenge "llmastertyreast" ngenxa yokuba lingalawuli isingxobo okanye ikrele, ukuxhomekeka kwamanye amasebe.

Ukudlala phakathi kwala masebe mathathu kwayilelwa ukwenza inkqubo yokuzilungisa. Njengoko uJames Madison wachaza ku umdwelisi onguNo. 51, "Ukhuthuzo malwenziwe ukulwa nephulo." Esi sakhiwo siqinisekisa ukuba amandla akahlukaniswanga kuphela kodwa angenandawo, anyanzelisa intsebenziswano kunye nokulalanisa.

IBhili Yamalungelo: Ukukhusela Ukukhululeka Komntu Ngamnye

Iingcali ezininzi ezilwa noMgaqo-siseko zachasa ukupheliswa komGaqo-siseko kuba zazingenazo izikhuseli ezicacileyo zamalungelo abantu. Ukukhusela amalungelo abantu, abasunguli bathembisa iBhili yamaLungelo — izivumelwano ezilishumi ezavunywa ngowe-1791 ezimisela igunya likarhulumente phezu kwabemi. Ezi zindululo zibonisa inkxalabo enzulu yootata abasekiweyo yokuba kwanorhulumente onyuliweyo wedemokhrasi angaphazamisana nenkululeko esisiseko.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: ILitye Lenkululeko

UMthetho wokuqala ohlaziyiweyo ukhusela inkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, yokushicilela, yokuhlanganisana, neyesibongozo. Uyalela ukuba iKhomishini imisele unqulo okanye iqheliselo olukhululekileyo. Oku kulungisa kwakuyindlela engqalileyo yokuphendula uhlalutyo lweBritane nentshutshiso yonqulo. Iqinisekisa ukuba abemi balapho banokugxeka urhulumente ngaphandle koloyiko, ukuba amajelo eendaba anokuba ngabajongi, yaye iimbono ezahlukeneyo zingakhuphisana kwintengiso yeengcamango. Ootata abayila iprojekthi babeqonda ukuba i-trapiki ixhomekeke kulwazi nakuthengiselwano.

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini: Ilungelo Lokuthwala Izixhobo

UHlaziyo lwesibini lukhusela ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo. Abaseki, bebone imigudu yamaBritane yokuphelisa amarhamncwa, bakholelwa ukuba abantu abaxhobileyo babefuneka ukuze bakhuseleke kwaye bahlole ubundlobongela. Intengiselwano yamagama e-Militia — "I-Militia elawulwa kakuhle, eyimfuneko kukhuseleko lukaRhulumente okhululekileyo" — babonakalisa ukugxininiswa kwasekuqaleni kwenkonzo yemikhosi. Iingxoxo zale mihla zokulawula imipu zazisoloko zisekelwe ekulinganiseni eli lungelo nokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke, kodwa abaqulumbi befuna ukunqanda urhulumente ukuba angaphelisi abantu.

Uhlaziyo Lwesine: Ukuzimela Nokuzikhusela

ISindululo sesine soMphengululo sikhusela ukuphanda okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula, okufuna unobangela olindelekileyo kunye nesiqinisekiso esikhutshwa ngumgwebi. Oku yayikukukusabela okungqalileyo kwii-arhente zoncedo zaseBritani — isiqinisekiso sokuphengulula jikelele esivumela amagosa ukuba angene naliphi na ikhaya ngaphandle kwesizathu. Intengiselwano ikhusela iindawo zabemi kunye nempahla ekungeneni ngokungekho mthethweni kukarhulumente, umgaqo ohlala ufanelekile kakhulu kwixesha lokuhlola kwemicimbiso yezelelo.

Ezinye izindululo kwiBhili yamaLungelo zikhusela amalungelo afana nenkqubo efanelekileyo (yesi-12), ukuvavanywa okukhawulezileyo (yesi-6), ukukhuselwa kwisohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga (i-Equadth), kunye nokugcinwa kumagunya kumazwe kunye nabantu (i-Tente). Ezi zindululo zidityanisiwe zidala ummandla wenkululeko yomntu ngamnye urhulumente angenakuyinqamleza, nto leyo ebangela ukuba abasunguli babone umbono worhulumente olinganiselweyo.

Iingxaki Zembali Nezanamhlanje

Phezu kwayo nje iiyakhiwo zobuchule zomGaqo-siseko, ulungelelwano lwamandla luvavanywe ngokuphindaphindiweyo. Isizukulwana ngasinye kuye kwafuneka silwe neemeko ezintsha ezibangela uxinzelelo lwesakhiwo sokuqala. Abaseki babesazi ukuba inkqubo yabo iza kujamelana nocelomngeni kwaye icetyelwe ukuba ikwazi ukumelana nobunzima, kodwa kwakhona baqonda ukuba ukugcina ulungelelwano kufuna umgudu ozingisileyo.

Imfazwe yamakhaya: AmaGunya aManyeneyo aphikisana namalungelo karhulumente

Oluna celomngeni lunzima kulungelelwano lomgaqo-siseko lwabakho kwiMfazwe yamakhaya, ilwa nobukhoboka kunye nobume be-Union. Amazwe aseMazantsi aphikisa ulawulo lukarhulumente kunye nelungelo lokulawula i-secede, esithi urhulumente wesizwe uphule igunya lakhe. Umongameli uAbraham Lincoln waqinisekisa ukuba i-Union yayihlala ikho kwaye ukubekwa komqathango kwakungekho mthethweni. Imfazwe yaphumela ekomelezeni amandla karhulumente — ulawulo oluphakamileyo, umgaqo we-145th Amendmentment, nokulahlwa kokulahlwa kwetyala — kodwa uxanduva phakathi kwamalungelo negunya lamazwe nolawulo lwamazwe kuyaqhubeka nanamhlanje kwiingxoxo eziphathelelemfundo, ukunyamekela impilo, kunye nomthetho wemeko-mentlalo.

Umsebenzi Omtsha Nokwanda Kwamandla Alawulayo

Ngexesha loKuwohloka Okukhulu Komnotho, uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Developt's Programme yandisa ngokuphawulekayo indima karhulumente worhulumente wesizwe kwizoqoqosho. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaqala yawisa umthetho we-New Developt, ikhokelela kwingxoxo ye-Rooosevelt "umqulu" wesicelo. Nangona loo migudu ingaphumelelanga, iNkundla ekugqibeleni yaxhasa imithetho emininzi ye-New Deal, yasusa ulungelelwano phakathi kwamasebe olawulo oluphezulu nomthetho-mthetho-mthetho. Isebe eliphetheyo lafumana igunya elibalulekileyo phezu komgaqo wezomthetho, ulawulo, ulawulo lwentlalo.

IQumrhu lamaLungelo aBami neMithetho yezeMigwebo

I-Civil Rights Movement of the 1950 ne 1960s yabalaselisa indima yejaji ekukhuseleni ucalucalulo lomntu ngamnye nxamnye nemithetho karhulumente. Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zixhasa umthetho wamalungelo abantu brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ (1954)) yavakalisa ukuba ukucalucalulwa kohlanga, ukukhutshwa kwesizwe, ukukhuselwa kwesizwe ngokwahlukileyo kwemithetho yombuso echaphazelekayo. Izigqibo zale mithetho yocalulo-mthetho-mthetho zixhasa umthetho wasekuhlaleni kwaye zandisa ukhuseleko lwamalungelo abantu, lwezindlu, kunye nomsebenzi. Kodwa abagxeki bephikisa ukuba isenzo sogwebo maxa wangoku sigqitha indima efanelekileyo yeenkundla, izigqibo eziphakamileyo zemithetho ekufuneka zishiywe phakathi kwesigqibo socalulo kunye nokhuphiswano lwe-demo-demo-demo-yo.

Iintloni zangexesha: IPartium Polantition kunye neQumrhu leGridlock

Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, ukuvela kwemo ye-Rondex enzulu kusibekele phantsi uhlolo kunye nokubekwa kwemiqathango. IiNdlu zendlu yezikhulu, imiyalelo yesebe elilawulayo, kunye nokusetyenziswa okukhulayo kwemithetho yokulawula icandelo lowiso-mthetho, konke kuye kwavavanya ukwenziwa kwabaseki bephondo. Ukuvela kwegunya elinamandla — amaqumrhu adibanisa uwiso-mthetho, isebe elilawulayo, kunye nemisebenzi yokugweba — avavanya imfundiso yokwahlulwa kwamagunya. Imibuzo engombutho womongameli, amagunya ongxamiseko ibangele iimfazwe ezisemthethweni. Ootata ababesekwethule babelindele ukuba amaqela alwanelo yaye amabhongo aya kulwa, kodwa abazange bajonge phambili iqondo le-gridrock enokuba ngumphumo wokwahlulo xa urhulumente wahlula ulwa.

Phezu kwazo nje ezi ngxaki, inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko iye yangqineka isebenza ngokuphawulekayo. IziHlaziyo ziye zongezwa ekucombululeni imisantsa — ukupheliswa kobukhoboka (ii-14th), ukukhuselwa ngendlela efanayo, amalungelo okuvota (15, 19th, 26th), nemiqathango yolawulo lomongameli (ngowe - 22. Le nkqubo iye yasinda kwimfazwe yamakhaya, ukuwohloka kwezoqoqosho, iimfazwe zehlabathi, nokutshintsha okunzulu kwentlalo, kanye ngenxa yokuba abaseki benkqubo ekwakhelwe kwiindlela zokuzivumelanisa ngoxa belondoloza imigaqo esisiseko yolungelelwano.

Ukugqalwa Okuhlala Kuhleli Kombono Wootata

Umbono wootata abasekwayo worhulumente wawungami ndawonye; babefuna ukuba umGaqo-siseko ube luxwebhu oluphilayo olunokulungiswa luze lutolikwe ngokuhamba kwexesha. Kodwa umgaqo wesiseko wamandla alungeleleneyo uyaqhubeka ubalulekile namhlanje njengangowe-1787. Amasebe amathathu ayaqhubeka ehlolana, iBhili yamaLungelo iyaqhubeka ikhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye, kwaye iingxoxo ezingorhulumente kunye negunya eliphezulu ziyaqhubeka zibumba imicimbi yezobupolitika yaseMelika.

Ukuqonda lo mbono kunceda abemi baqonde isizathu sokuba ulwahlulo lwamagunya lubalulekile kwinkululeko. Xa isebe elinye liphamba — nokuba ngemiyalelo yesebe elilawulayo egqitha iKhomishini, ukwala kwemithetho ukuqinisekisa abagwebi, okanye imithetho yokugweba ephinda ibhale imithetho ngokunempumelelo — umlinganiselo uyasongelwa. Inkcubeko yabaseki yayikukudala inkqubo apho kungekho sebe linokulawula khona, apho kufuneka ulalanisa, nalapho ekugqibeleni abantu bebambe amandla okulungisa ukungalingani okuhamba ngonyulwa nangonyulo kunye nokulungisa.

Abafundi borhulumente, isiseko sootata abasekiweyo singumthombo osisityebi wokuqonda. Abanikeli bangaphandle abanjengomGaqo-siseko woMgaqo-siseko wesizwe opheleleyo, umgangatho wogcino-lwazi lwe-University[ wemiba yabo, kunye noMgaqo-siseko weSizwe] osisiXhobo unikela unyuso olunzulu kakhulu kwezi mixholo. Urhulumente olungelelekileyo akanikwanganikwanganikwa nto — ngumsebenzi ozinzileyo ufuna ulwazi-ngabemi, amaziko azimeleyo, kunye nokuzinikela kumthetho womthetho. Njengoko ootata besakhiwokuqala, ixabiso lokuzinziswa kwenkululeko.