Table of Contents

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo yesizwe isebenza njengenye yezona ntsika zibalulekileyo zedemokhrasi yaseMerika, iqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni kulawulwa kakuhle kwaye kungenziwa ngokungakhethi macala kulo lonke elaseUnited States. IiNkundla ze-U.S. zadalwa phantsi kweGatya III lomGaqo-siseko ukuphatha okusesikweni nokungakhethi buso, phakathi kolawulo olumiselwe ngumGaqo-siseko kunye neBhunga. Nokuba ungumfundi, ugqirha ongochwepheshe, okanye ummi okwaziyo ukuchaza indlela ezisebenza ngayo iinkundla zelizwe, ukuqonda indlela ezisebenza ngayo iinkqubo zomthetho zaseMelika. Esi sikhokelo sibanzi siya kuhamba ngayo ngayo kuyo yonke into oyifunayo ukuze wazi ngeenkundla zomthetho, ukusuka kwisakhiwo nakwigunya labo nakwimithetho yabo, nendlela abasingatha ngayo amatyala nendlela abahlukene ngayo kwiinkundla zikarhulumente.

Ziyintoni Iinkundla Zesizwe?

Iinkundla zomanyano zingamaqumrhu akhethekileyo asingatha amatyala abandakanya imithetho karhulumente, imibuzo yezomGaqo-siseko, kunye neempikiswano ezinqumla imida. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zikarhulumente, ezinegunya elibanzi kwimicimbi emininzi engomthetho, iinkundla zephondo ziinkundla zolawulo olulinganiselweyo, intsingiselo yokuba zingawava kuphela amatyala agunyazisiweyo ngumGaqo-siseko waseUnited States okanye imimiselo yorhulumente. Lo mqathango usisiseko uthetha ukuba iinkundla zesizwe azinakugqiba ukuba onke amatyala afike phambi kwazo, kufuneka zibe negunya elinikiweyo ngumGaqo-siseko okanye iBhunga-siseko elithile lokuphulaphula uhlobo oluthile lwempikiswano.

IGatya III lomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. ladala iNkundla ePhakamileyo negunyazisiweyo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo neNkundla ePhakamileyo ukuba imise imithetho yokuseka inkqubo yeenkundla ezincinci. Esi siseko somGaqo-siseko siye saphumela kwinkqubo yenkundla yephondo exhotyiswe kathathu esingatha amawakawaka amatyala nyaka ngamnye, ukususela kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho ukuya kuqikelelwa ngokuntsonkothileyo okubandakanya amawaka ezigidi zeerandi.

Isakhiwo esiziziiNkundla zoMasipala

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo yesizwe inemigangatho emithathu: ukuchotshelwa kwetyala, ukubekwa kwetyala, kunye nenkundla yezonyuso zokugqibela. Umgangatho ngamnye usebenza injongo eyahlukileyo kwaye unoxanduva oluthile kwisakhiwo esibanzi sezomthetho. Ukuqonda esi sakhiwo solawulo kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni indlela amatyala ahamba ngayo kwinkqubo yorhulumente nendlela emiselwa ngayo imizekelo esemthethweni.

IiNkundla ZeSithili zaseUnited States: Umgangatho Wetyala

Iinkundla zesithili ziinkundla zokuchophela amatyala jikelele kwinkqubo yenkundla yelifa lesizwe. Inkundla nganye yesithili inejaji enye yeSithili yaseUnited States, emiselwe nguMongameli kwaye eqinisekiswe yiNdlu yeeNkulumbuso ukuze ifumane igalelo lobomi. Iinkundla zesithili zisingatha iinkundla kwinkqubo yenkundla yezoluntu nezolwaphulo-mthetho.

Ityala lesithili okanye letyala lephondo lama-94 lelizwe libizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesithili zase-U.S. Ezi nkundla zisasazwa kulo lonke elase-United States ukuqinisekisa ukufumaneka kwendawo, ubuncinane nenkundla enye yesithili kwiphondo ngalinye, kunye neSithili saseColumbia. Amanye amazwe amakhulu anemimandla emininzi enokusingatha ityala lawo ngokunempumelelo. Umzekelo, achaza ukuba abemi bakhona bangahlulwa babe ngama-North, entshona, eMpuma, kunye namaphondo aseNtshona.

Iinkundla zesithili ziqhuba iinkundla kunye namatyala, zicombulula iimbambano ngokumisa izibakala nokusebenzisa umthetho kwezo zibakala. Lo msebenzi wokufumana inyani wahlula iinkundla zamatyala kwiinkundla ezichaphazelekayo, ezihlola imibuzo engokwasemthethweni kunokuphinda ziphindise izigqibo eziyinyaniso. Kwinkundla yesithili, abagwebi, nabagwebi, bavavanye ubungqina, baphulaphule ubungqina, kwaye benze izigqibo ngoko kwenzekayo ngetyala elithile.

Iintlobo Zetyala Eziveliswe KwiNkundla Yesithili

Amatyala angoorhulumente nawamatyala aphantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente aviwa kwiinkundla zesithili zephondo.

Kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni, amatyala abandakanya iimbambano phakathi kwabantu, imibutho okanye oorhulumente, apho iqela elinye okanye angaphezulu limangalela iqela elinye okanye ngaphezulu ukuba lihlawulelwe imbuyekezo yomonakalo wobuqu okanye wezoqoqosho (oko kukuthi: ukwaphulwa kwesivumelwano esibandakanya uRhulumente, ukwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu, ukuxambulisana phakathi kwabemi okanye amashishini amazwe awahlukeneyo, ukukhutyelwa kwemvume nenkcaso). La matyala abandakanya yonke into ukusuka kwiimbambano ezintsonkothile zezorhwebo ukuya kwiimbambano ezingo zolwaphulo-mthetho.

Ulawulo lolawulo lwesizwe lumiselwa xa amatyala ebandakanya imithetho karhulumente, uRhulumente wase-U.S. (okanye nawuphi na umbutho wawo), ngaphezu korhulumente omnye phakathi kwelizwe, kunye neengxwabangxwaba phakathi kwabemi okanye amashishini ahlukeneyo apho imali exabanayo ingaphaya kwee-$75,000.00. Oku kulawula kwezo ntlobo-ntlobo kuvumela iinkundla zesizwe ukuba zisebenze njengee-parali zobundilele xa amaqela asuka kumazwe ahlukeneyo ebandakanyekile ekuhlazisweni, ekuthinteleni ikhethe elinokubakho kwiinkundla zikarhulumente.

Amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho kwiinkundla zesithili zikarhulumente abandakanya ukwaphulwa komthetho karhulumente. Ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho libandakanya ukwaphulwa komthetho wesizwe (oko kukuthi: ukurhwebelana ngeziyobisi kwilizwe, ukuphangwa kwebhanki, ubuqhetseba okanye ubusela kwimibutho ekhuselwe ngurhulumente, ukukhohlisa ngemali yase-U.S. Amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho anxulumene nolwaphulo-mthetho olunqamlezileyo, oluchaphazela ushishino-mthetho, okanye olubandakanya ipropati okanye amagosa karhulumente.

Indima YaBagwebi Abangamaqhawe

Eminye imisebenzi yenkundla yesithili inikwa abagwebi bephondo. I-Magstate imiselwa yinkundla yesithili ngabavoti abaninzi kwaye isebenza ngokwexesha elisibhozo ukuba ixesha elipheleleyo kunye neminyaka emine ukuba inxalenye yexesha, kodwa isenokuphinda imiselwe emva kokugqitywa kwegama layo. La magosa alawulayo anceda ekulawuleni ukugcinwa okukhulu kweenkundla zesithili ngokusingatha imicimbi yokuqala kunye neentlobo ezithile zamatyala.

Kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho, amajaji angavelela amatyala athile, imiyalelo yokuphengulula nokufumana imvume yokubanjwa, ukuqhuba iimvume zokuchotshelwa kwetyala, ukumisela ibheyile, ukugqiba iintshukumo ezithile (njengokuhamba ucinezela ubungqina), nezinye izenzo ezifanayo. Kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni, abaphathi bamatyala badla ngokusingatha iinguqu ezifana nemisebenzi yangaphambi kwemibango nokufunyanwa kwengxelo. Eli candelo lokusebenza livumela abagwebi besithili ukuba banikele ingqalelo kwimicimbi entsonkothile ngoxa beqinisekisa ukuba imisebenzi yemithetho yeqhinga iphathwa ngendlela ephumelelayo.

IiNkundla zezibheno zase-U.S.: Umgangatho weApplette ephakathi

Kukho iinkundla zetyala ezili-13 ezihlala ngaphantsi kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U. yaye zibizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zezibheno zase-U. Ezi nkomfa ziphakathi zidlala indima ebalulekileyo kwinkqubo yokugweba yesizwe ngokuhlola izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla zesithili nokuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho usetyenziswe ngokuchanekileyo.

Kukho iziphaluka ezilishumi elinesibini zikarhulumente ezahlula ilizwe zibe yimimandla eyahlukeneyo. Isekethi yesihlanu, umzekelo, iquka ummandla waseTexas, Louisiana, kunye neMississippi. Ityala elivela kwiinkundla zesithili zezo mimandla libhenele kwiNkundla yezibheno yeUnited States yeNkundla yeSihlanu, ekhutshelwa intloko kwiNew Orleans, Louisiana. Lo mbutho wezwe uqinisekisa ukuba uhlolo lwe-appelte lufikeleleka kwilizwe lonke.

Additionally, the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals has a nationwide jurisdiction over very specific issues such as patents. This specialized court handles appeals in technical areas where consistent national standards are particularly important, including patent law, international trade, and certain claims against the federal government.

Indlela Osebenza Ngayo Umsebenzi Wenkundla

Umsebenzi wenkundla enika ingxelo kukugqiba ukuba umthetho wasetyenziswa ngokuchanekileyo kwinkundla yamatyala okanye kwisebe lolawulo lorhulumente. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zamatyala, iinkundla zetyala, aziqhubeli matsha amatyala, aziphulaphuli ubungqina, okanye zivavanye ubungqina ngokobuqu. Endaweni yoko, zihlola ingxelo evela kwinkundla esezantsi ukuze zibone iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni.

Izibheno eziya kwiinkundla zesiphaluka kuqala ziviwa yiqela leenkundla, eliqulethwe ngabagwebi abathathu besiphaluka. Ithala leencwadi lifakela iifayile "ii-brief" kwinkundla, liphikisa isizathu sokuba isigqibo senkundla yetyala kufuneka "siqinisekiswe" okanye "siguqulwe". Emva kokuba ezi ngxelo zibekwe kwakhona, inkundla iza kucwangcisa ucwangciso "impikiswano ekhoyo" apho amagqwetha eza phambi kwenkundla ukuze enze iimpikiswano zawo aze aphendule imibuzo yabagwebi. Le nkqubo ivumela abagwebi abagwebi abagwebi ukuba bahlolisise ngenyameko iimbambano zomthetho baze baqinisekise ukungaguquguquki kwindlela umthetho wesebe otolikiswa ngayo nokusetyenziswa ngayo.

Inkundla nganye yesiphaluka ineejaji ezininzi, ukusuka kwisithandathu kwisekethi yokuqala ukuya kumashumi amabini anesine kwisekethi yeNinth. Umahluko kwinani labagwebi ubonisa ukuthwaliswa kwetyala ngokwahlukeneyo nobungakanani beendawo zeziphaluka ezahlukeneyo. Abagwebi benkundla yesiphaluka bamiselwa ubomi ngumongameli kwaye baqinisekiswe yiBhunga.

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States: Eyona Nkundla Iphakamileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States iqulethwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo yeSigqeba saseUnited States kunye namatyala asibhozo anxulumene nayo. Njengenkundla ephakamileyo kwinkqubo yorhulumente, iNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza njengommeli wokugqibela womthetho karhulumente kunye nenkcazelo yomGaqo-siseko.

Kuko ke, kumthetho wayo, nakukhokelo oluthile olumiselwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, nyaka ngamnye iNkundla ePhakamileyo iphulaphula inani elisikelwe umda lamatyala ekufuneka igqibe ngawo. La matyala asenokuqala kwiinkundla zikarhulumente okanye zikarhulumente, kwaye adla ngokubandakanya imibuzo ebalulekileyo ngomGaqo-siseko okanye umthetho wesizwe. Indlela ekhethwe yiNkundla ekhethayo ukuchonga ityala ivumela ukuba iqwalasele eyona mibuzo ibalulekileyo engomthetho ejongene nesizwe.

INkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza ngokuqwalasela ngokuyintloko, ithetha ukuba ikhetha amatyala okuva. Ngaphaya kwepesenti eli-1 yezicelo ze-ceretaori kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo zivunywa; inkoliso yamatyala aseleyo ayihoywa okanye ayivunywa, iphumelela ekwenzeni izigqibo kwiinkundla ezisezantsi zokugqibela. Le nkqubo ikhetha kakhulu iqinisekisa ukuba iNkundla ithetha kuphela ngezo tyala ziphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo okanye izisombululo zeenkundla eziphantsi.

Ukumangalelwa Kwamandulo KweNkundla Ephakamileyo

Ngeli xesha iNkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza njengenkundla echazayo, ikwanolawulo olulinganiselweyo lwantlandlolo kwiimeko ezithile. Xa iNkundla isebenza njengenkundla yamatyala kuthiwa inegunya lantlandlolo, kwaye injalo kwiimeko ezimbalwa ezibalulekileyo, njengaxa elinye iphondo limangalela elinye iphondo. Amatyala okulawula koqobo nawo anqabile kuba, ngaphandle kwesuti okanye iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe amabini, iNkundla ithe yavumela iinkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente ukwabelana ngegunya layo lokuqala.

Iinkundla Zomanyano Ezikhethekileyo

Ngaphaya kwesakhiwo seziqithi ezithathu, iinkundla zezibheno, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo, inkqubo yephondo iquka iinkundla eziliqela ezikhethekileyo ezisingatha iindidi ezithile zamatyala. Ezi ntenale zinobuchule kwiindawo ezithile zomthetho kwaye zinika isifungo esiqwalaselweyo kwimicimbi ethile.

Iinkundla zeBhanki

Zikho iinkundla ezingamashumi asibhozo ezirhoxisa imali eUnited States. Iinkundla zeBhanki zinceda abantu namashishini angakwaziyo ukuhlawula amatyala abo ukuba bafumane isiqalo esitsha. Isithili ngasinye siquka inkundla yokuwa kwamali yase-U. Ezi nkundla zisingatha zonke iinkundla zokubhangiswa kwamaphepha, ezingenakugcinwa kwiinkundla zelifa lesizwe.

Imithetho yebhanki inceda abantu abangasakwazi ukuhlawula abo babatyalayo ukuba baqale ngokutsha ngokuchitha izinto zabo ukuze bahlawule amatyala abo, okanye ngokwenza icebo lokuhlawula. Imithetho yebhanki ikhusela amashishini akhathazekileyo kwaye ilungiselela ukusasazwa kocwangco kwababoleki-mali ngokweenkqubo zokulungelelanisa okanye zokuwasela. Ezi nkqubo zigutyungelwa phantsi kweSihlomelo 11 se-United States (Imithetho yeBhanki

Ezinye Iinkundla Zomanyano Ezikhethekileyo

Ukongezelela, ezinye iinkundla zinegunya kwilizwe lonke lemiba enjengerhafu (iNkundla yerhafu yeUnited States), zityhola urhulumente (iNkundla yeMasipala yaseUnited States yee-Apion), kunye norhwebo lwezizwe ngezizwe (iNkundla ye-United States ye-International Trade). Ezi nkundla zikhethekileyo zivumela ukuphuhliswa kobuchule kwiindawo ezintsonkothileyo nezobugcisa zomthetho wesizwe.

INkundla yeNkundla yeZizwe Ezihlukeneyo Yezorhwebo yaseUnited States isingatha amatyala abandakanya imithetho yezorhwebo nezithethe zamazwe ngamazwe, ngoxa iNkundla yamatyala kaFederal yaseUnited States inegunya elipheleleyo kwiingxelo ezininzi zemali ezinxamnye norhulumente waseUnited States. INkundla yerhafu yaseUnited States inikela imvume yokuba abo bahlawula irhafu bathethe ngezigqibo zerhafu ngaphambi kokuba bahlawule iimali ezithenjiweyo.

Inkundla Yomanyano Ityholo: Yiyiphi Ityala Enokuviwa ZiNkundla Zomanyano?

Ukuqonda igunya lenkundla yenkundla yorhulumente kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuba liliphi icala elikwinkundla yesizwe kunokuba liyinkundla karhulumente. UmGaqo-siseko kunye nemimiselo karhulumente ichaza imida yegunya lenkundla yenkundla yorhulumente, idala inkqubo apho iinkundla zikarhulumente zisingatha iindidi ezithile zempikiswano ngoxa iinkundla zikarhulumente zigcina igunya jikelele kwimibandela emininzi engokwasemthethweni.

Isigqibo sombuzo womanyano

Inkundla yesithili yephondo yeyona ndawo iqalayo naliphi na ityala elivela phantsi kwemimiselo karhulumente, umGaqo-siseko, okanye izivumelwano. Lo mbandela "wetyala" uvumela iinkundla zorhulumente ukuba zitolike zize zisebenzise umthetho wesizwe, ziqinisekise ukuba imimiselo yorhulumente kunye namalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko aqondwa njani kulo lonke ilizwe.

Amatyala abandakanya ukulawulwa kwemithetho karhulumente ebandakanya ukubekwa kwaloo mithetho yamalungelo abantu, ukumangalelwa kwamatyala, iimbambano ezingomthetho karhulumente, imingeni engomgaqo-siseko wemithetho karhulumente okanye karhulumente. La matyala abandakanya imibuzo yomthetho karhulumente yokuba iinkundla zikarhulumente zikufanele ukuconjululwa.

Ukusetyenziswa Kwamaqela Ahlukahlukeneyo

Ulawulo lwentlalo-ntle yelizwe elinye luvumela ummangalelwa ukuba afake icala kwinkundla yorhulumente xa ummangalelwa ekwimeko eyahlukileyo. Ummangalelwa angafuna kwakhona "ukususa" kwinkundla yesizwe ngenxa yesizathu esinye. Ukuzisa ityala lomthetho karhulumente kwinkundla yesizwe, zonke ii-Plato kufuneka zibekwe kumazwe ahlukeneyo kunabo bonke abamangalelwayo, kwaye "uphakathi kwempikiswano" kufuneka abe ngaphezu kwee-$75,000.

Ulawulo lwezizwe ngeendawo lusebenza umsebenzi obalulekileyo ngokunika ifomati yobundilele xa amaqela asuka kumazwe awahlukeneyo ebandakanyekile kwiligitation. Abaqulunqi bomGaqo-siseko babexhalabele ukuba iinkundla zikarhulumente zinokuba khetha abemi bazo ngamaqela angaphandle, ngoko ke zayila le ndlela yokulawula inkundla yephondo kwanaxa intengiso ephantsi komthetho worhulumente ivela.

Amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho asenokungangeniselwa phantsi kolawulo oluhlukeneyo. Ama-odolo asenokuzisa kuphela amatyala etyala kwiinkundla zikarhulumente, kwaye urhulumente wesizwe ungayizisa ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho enkundleni karhulumente.

Imilinganiselo yomgaqo-siseko weSifungo soManyano

UMgaqo-siseko ngokwawo uchaza imida engaphandle yolawulo lwenkundla yelizwe. IGunya lezobulungisa liya kufikelela kuwo onke amatyala, kuMthetho naseMacaleni, livela phantsi kwalo mGaqo-siseko, iMithetho yaseUnited States, kunye neZigqibo eziza kwenziwa, okanye eziza kwenziwa phantsi kweGunyaziso;-kuManyano ezichaphazela ama-Agabeli, amanye amaBangameli noMphathiswa karhulumente; nako konke okuMatyala eMgaqo-siseko; nakonke amatyala oMkhosi weLizwe; ukuquququzelela iMithelela;-othathoba eUnited States iya kuba liSizwana;-iCandelo phakathi kwamaZwe amabini okanye angaphezulu; phakathi koRhulumente nabemi boMgaqo-ozwelo; phakathi kobuzwe bamazwe ahlukeneyo, kunye noMgaqo-orhulumente waseMgantwini, kunye noMgaqo-orhulumente waseMazwe, kunye neMazwe, kunye neMithobeli, kunye neMithelelaniso, okanye iMazwe, iMazwe, kunye neMithelelaniso,

Olu lwimi lumisela umlinganiselo omkhulu wamandla ejaji yesizwe. Iingqungquthela zingakhetha ukunika iinkundla zorhulumente igunya phezu kwezinye okanye kuzo zonke ezi ntlobo, kodwa azinakulwandisa ulawulo lorhulumente ngaphezu koko umGaqo-siseko ukukuvumela.

ABagwebi Abamanyeneyo: Idinga Nomsebenzi

Inkululeko yejaji yesizwe yeyona nto iphambili kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko waseMerika. Abagwebi bamaPhondo bafumana ikhuselwa elilungiselelwe ukubakhusela kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika baze babavumele benze izigqibo ezisekelwe kumthetho nakwiinyaniso.

Idinga

Abagwebi boManyano (neNkundla ePhakamileyo "izigwebo") bakhethwa nguMongameli kwaye baqinisekiswe "ngecebiso nemvume" yeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso kwaye "iya kuba nee-ofisi zabo ngexesha lokuziphatha okuhle". Le nkqubo yokumisa, emiselwe ngumGaqo-siseko, iqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi besizwe bakhethwa kwinkqubo ebandakanya amasebe aphetheyo kunye nemithetho.

UMongameli ubeka abantu abaza kusebenza njengabagwebi besizwe, ngokufuthi emva kokuqhagamshelana namaqumrhu asuka kwiphondo apho iza kusebenza khona ijaji. IKomiti yeNdlu yeeNtsimi yamaCala ngoko ibeka amatyala ngokutyunjwa, kunye neNdlu yeNtlanganiso epheleleyo ivota ukuba ingamqinisekisa na lo mtyunjwa. Le nkqubo inokuba mide yaye maxa wambi ithanda ukuxabana, ingakumbi kumacala aphezulu enkundla arhoxinzelelwayo kunye nezikhundla zenkundla.

Ithuba Lobomi Nenkululeko Yogwebo

Abagwebi basenokuma kwizikhundla zabo ubomi babo bonke, kodwa abaninzi barhoxa okanye bathathe umhlala - phantsi ngaphambi kwexesha. Oku kuphila kucetyelwe ukukhusela inkululeko yokugweba ngokuqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi akuyomfuneko ukuba baxhalabele ukuphinda batshate okanye banyulwe. Abagwebi bamaSebe bangenza izigqibo ezingathandwayo ngaphandle koloyiko lokuphulukana nezikhundla zabo, bevumela ukutolika umthetho ngaphandle kokungenelela kwezobupolitika.

Zingasuswa ngokungacetyiswa yiNdlu yabameli kunye nokugwetywa yiBhunga. Ukutyhubela imbali, abagwebi besizwe abalishumi elinesihlanu baye bagxekwa ngenxa yesenzo esityholwayo sobubi. Le nkqubo yokungakhuthazi inika inkqubo yokususa abagwebi ababandakanyeka kwihambo engafanelekanga enzulu ngeli xesha begcina inkululeko yokugweba yabagwebi abenza izigqibo ezingathandwayo.

Enye into echasene nokumiswa kobomi bonke ziijaji zejaji, ezikhethwa ngabagwebi besithili kwaye zisetyenziswa ligama elikhethekileyo.

Indlela Iinkundla Zomanyano Ezahluke Ngayo Kwiinkundla Zelizwe

I-United States isebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yenkundla ezimbini, ezisebenza zombini iinkundla zorhulumente nezorhulumente ngaxeshanye. Ukuqonda umahluko phakathi kwezi nkqubo zimbini kubalulekile kuye nabani na ohamba ngeliso lendlela yezomthetho yaseMerika.

Isiqinisekiso: Isiphelo somngxuma wemida we- v. Jikelele

Iinkundla zoManyano zinegunya elilinganiselweyo. Zinokuva kuphela amatyala agunyaziswe ngokukhethekileyo ngumGaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo karhulumente. Zisingatha ulwaphulo-mthetho lwaseburhulumenteni, imibuzo engokomGaqo-siseko, iimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe, kunye namatyala abandakanya umthetho wesizwe. Olu gunya lulinganiselweyo luthetha ukuba iinkundla zephondo azinakukwazi ukuva zonke iintlobo zetyala.

Ngokwahlukileyo koko, iinkundla zeli lizwe zinegunya eliqhelekileyo. Ziva uninzi lweenkundla ezingokwasemthethweni eUnited States. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zisingatha inkoliso yamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, imicimbi yentsapho, amatyala okumangalelwa ngokwezono, ukumangalelwa ngokobuqu, iimbambano zesivumelwano, neminye imicimbi eqhelekileyo engokwasemthethweni.

Isigqibo esiqulunqiweyo nesiququ

Ulawulo lwamaxesha ahlukeneyo lukhona apho zombini iinkundla zorhulumente nezorhulumente zinegunya lokuva uhlobo olunye lwetyala. Amatyala olawulo oluhlukeneyo afanayo ngumzekelo oqhelekileyo. Impikiswano phakathi kwamaqela avela kumazwe awahlukeneyo ingagcinwa kwinkundla yenkundla yesizwe okanye yesizwe, kwaye ukhetho luyisigqibo somgaqo-siseko esiqulunqileyo. Xa kukho ulawulo lwale ntlanganiso, oorhulumente bangakhetha i-folum, nabamangalelwa banokukwazi ukususa amatyala kurhulumente kwinkundla yesizwe.

Kukho ulawulo oluphangaleleyo apho kunokuthi kubekho inkqubo yenkundla enye kuphela eva amatyala athile. Amatyala eBhankippacy, asemthethweni, kunye norhulumente ochasene namalungelo omntu angoorhulumente kuphela. Uqhawulo-mtshato, ukugcinwa kwabantwana, kunye nokugcinwa kwe-probate zingurhulumente kuphela. Le mithetho ilawula kuphela iyathintela ukuthenga izinto ze-instrum kwaye iqinisekisa ukuba amatyala avalwa ngendlela yenkundla exhotyiswe kakuhle ukuwasingatha.

Umahluko

Iinkqubo zenkundla yomanyano ziqheleke ngakumbi kwaye zilungelelaniswe, kwaye ziyinyanzelisa ngokungqongqo imithetho yobungqina. Iinkqubo zenkundla yeli lizwe zisenokungavisisani ngokuphawulekayo ngokwemigaqo yorhulumente ngamnye, ziyenze ithambeke ngakumbi kwaye ilungelelene neemfuno zasekuhlaleni. Iinkundla zoManyano zilandela iMithetho yeCal Criminal Procedure neMithetho yeQela yePhondo, enika imigangatho efanayo kuzo zonke iinkundla zikarhulumente.

Iinkundla zelizwe, ngokwahlukileyo, nganye inemithetho yayo engundoqo enokuhluka ngokuphawulekayo ukusuka kurhulumente ukuya kurhulumente. Amanye amazwana aye amkela imithetho efanayo nemithetho karhulumente, ngelixesha amanye egcina iinkqubo ezahlukeneyo. Olu tshintsho lungadala ucelomngeni kumagqwetha aqhelisela kumaphondo amaninzi kodwa anika ubuchule bokulungelelanisa iinkqubo zawo kwiimfuno kunye nezinto akhetha kuzo.

Ukhetho lwejaji

Umongameli umisela abagwebi besizwe, abangqinelana nabo iNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNtlanganiso. Le nkqubo inika izinzo kwaye ikhusela abagwebi kwimpembelelo yezobupolitika. Ubomi bejaji zelifa lesizwe buyinxalenye eyahlukileyo yenkqubo karhulumente elungiselelwe ukukhuthaza inkululeko yokugweba.

Ngokwahlukileyo koko, abavoti abagwebi benkundla yetyala yelizwe, nangona indlela yokukhetha ekhethekileyo ingahluka kumazwe ngamazwe. Amanye amaphondo asebenzisa unyulo lwabathathi-nxaxheba, amanye asebenzisa unyulo olungekho yinxalenye, kanti amanye asebenzisa iinkqubo zokukhetha apho abagwebi bamiselwa khona baze bajongene nonyulo. Ezi ndlela zokhetho ezahlukeneyo zibonisa iintanda-ntanda-bulumko ezahlukeneyo malunga nokuziphendulela ngokweekomiti kunye nokuzimela.

Inkqubo yezibheno kwiiNkundla zoManyano

Ukuqonda indlela izibheno ezisebenza ngayo kwinkqubo karhulumente kubalulekile ukuze siqonde indlela ezimiselwa ngayo imizekelo engokwasemthethweni nendlela iimpazamo ezilungiswa ngayo kwiinkundla zamatyala.

Ukubhenela kwiNkundla yeSithili ukuya kwiNkundla Yesiphaluka

Xa inkundla yesithili yephondo igqibile ukutyala, eli tyala lingabhenela kwinkundla yesibheno yaseUnited States. Naliphi na ityala lingabhenwa kwinkundla yesiphaluka xa inkundla yesithili igqibe ngesigqibo (iminye imicimbi inokubhena phambi kwesigqibo sokugqibela ngokwenza "isibheno sokubhenela"). Eli lungelo lesibheno liqinisekisa ukuba amaqumrhu anethuba lokuvavanya iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni ezenziwe yinkundla yetyala.

Iinkundla zezibheno ezisebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yohlolo olunyanzelekileyo kumatyala amaninzi, intsingiselo kufuneka ziphulaphule izibheno ezigcinwe kakuhle. Oku kuyaphikisana nohlolo lweqhinga leNkundla ePhakamileyo, apho iNkundla ikhetha ukuba ngawaphi amatyala okuphulaphula. Inkqubo yohlolo olunyanzelekileyo iqinisekisa ukuba abasebenzi belitha abanokufumana ithuba elinye lokuhlola izigqibo zenkundla yesithili.

Ukufuna Impinda Yenkundla Ephakamileyo

Emva kokuba inkundla yezibheno igqibe ityala, iqela eliphulukana nalo lingacela iNkundla Ephakamileyo ukuba iphinde ihlole. Noko ke, iNkundla Ephakamileyo inegunya elisemthethweni kwiimeko ezininzi, ithetha ukuba isenokukhetha amatyala ekufuneka eweviwe. Amathetho afuna uphengululo lwefayile yeNkundla ePhakamileyo acela isicelo seqhinga leCeartiorari, ecela iNkundla ukuba ihlole isigqibo senkundla esezantsi.

INkundla ePhakamileyo inika iCertiorari imvume ecacileyo xa kukho ingxabano phakathi kweziphaluka kumbandela obalulekileyo womthetho, xa inkundla esezantsi igqibe ngesigqibo esibalulekileyo somthetho ongowaseluntwini ongazange uconjululwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, okanye xa inkundla esezantsi iye yashiya iinkqubo ezisemthethweni ezamkelekileyo. Indlela ekhethayo yeNkundla iyenza ikwazi ukuqwalasela amatyala abalulekileyo esizwe ngoxa ishiya izigqibo ezininzi ze-asethi zisezigqibopheleleni lomthetho.

Iinkundla Ezilawulayo Zemigaqo Ebalulekileyo

Imigaqo eliqela eyintloko ibumba indlela iinkundla zikarhulumente ezisebenza nokusebenzisana ngayo nezinye iindawo zikarhulumente neenkundla zikarhulumente.

Ukwahlukana Kwamandla Nokujongana Nolungelelwano

La masebe mathathu — owiso-mthetho, onegunya kunye nezomthetho — asebenza kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko "yemiqathango kunye nolungelelwano". Oku kuthetha ukuba nangona isebe ngalinye lahlukile ngokusesikweni kwamanye amabini, umGaqo-siseko usoloko ufuna intsebenziswano phakathi kwamasebe. Iinkundla zesebe zidlala indima ebalulekileyo kule nkqubo ngokutolika imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga, ukuqwalasela izenzo ezithatyathwa lisebe elilawulayo, kwaye ziqinisekisa ukuba omabini amasebe asebenza ngokwemida yomgaqo-siseko.

Amandla okuhlola okugweba, ```igunya leenkundla' lokuvakalisa imithetho okanye izenzo ezilawulayo ezingavumelaniyo nemithetho-siseko'','enye yeengxilolo ezibalulekileyo zokuvavanya amasebe. Nangona lingachazwanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, eli gunya lamiselwa kwasekuqaleni kwimbali yaseMerika kwaye liye laba luphawu olusisiseko lwenkqubo yenkundla yesebe.

Imida Kumandla Enkundla Yomanyano

Iinkundla zomanyano zijongene nemiqathango emininzi ebalulekileyo kwigunya lazo. Iinkundla zinokugqiba kuphela ngokufanelekileyo "iingcinga okanye iimpikiswano," oko kukuthi azinakukhupha iimbono zobuxoki okanye zigqibe imibuzo ethelekelelwayo. Amatheko kufuneka abe "ame" ukuya kutshayelela, ithetha ukuba amele ukuba ahlelwe kakubi ngokukoqobo okunokulungiswa sisigqibo senkundla.

Ukongezelela, iinkundla zikarhulumente jikelele kufuneka zihlonele izigqibo zenkundla yenkundla yeli lizwe zize ziphephe ukuphazamisana neenkundla eziqhubekayo zenkundla. Imigaqo yephondo ifuna ukuba iinkundla zikarhulumente zibonise ukuthotyelwa okufanelekileyo kwiinkundla zorhulumente nakumthetho karhulumente, kwanaxa kugcinwa ukuphakama komthetho karhulumente kwimibuzo karhulumente.

Indima Yeenkundla Zomanyano Kuluntu LwaseMerika

Iinkundla zomanyano zifeza iindima ezininzi ezibalulekileyo kwibutho lamaMerika ngaphandle kokucombulula nje iimbambano. Zitolika umGaqo-siseko nemimiselo karhulumente, zimisela imizekelo engokwasemthethweni ekhokela amatyala exesha elizayo, ikhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye namaqhinga karhulumente, kwaye ziqinisekisa ukuba ziyavumelana ekusetyenzisweni komthetho wesizwe kulo lonke ilizwe.

Ukukhusela amalungelo omGaqo-siseko

Omnye weyona misebenzi ibalulekileyo yeenkundla zikarhulumente kukukhusela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Iinkundla zoManyano ziva amatyala achaza ukwaphulwa kwamalungelo omGaqo-siseko ngurhulumente, urhulumente okanye oorhulumente basekuhlaleni. La matyala abandakanya inkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, inkqubo efunekayo, ukhuseleko olulinganayo, nezinye iziqinisekiso ezininzi zomGaqo-siseko.

Ngelixa lokubekwa komgaqo-siseko, iinkundla zelifa lemveli ziye zadlala indima ephambili ekwandiseni amalungelo abantu, ekukhuseleni inkululeko yabantu, nasekuchazeni imida yegunya likarhulumente. Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo eziPhakamileyo ziye zaguqula ibutho lamaMerika kwimibandela esusela ekuvotelweni kwesikolo ukuya kutsho kumalungelo olwaphulo-mthetho.

Ukuqinisekisa ukufana komthetho wamaQela

Iinkundla zomanyano zinceda ekuqinisekiseni ukuba umthetho karhulumente utolikwa kwaye usetyenziswa ngokungaguquki kulo lonke ilizwe. Xa iziphaluka ezahlukeneyo zifikelela izigqibo ezingqubanayo ngombandela omnye womthetho, iNkundla ePhakamileyo inokuthatha inyathelo lokusombulula loo ngxabano ize imisele umthetho ofanayo. Oku kufana kubaluleke ngokukhethekileyo kwimimandla echaphazela ezorhwebo, ukhuseleko lwesizwe, neminye imicimbi yenkxalabo yesizwe.

Ukucombulula Iingxabano Phakathi Kwamazwe

Iinkundla zoManyano, ingakumbi iNkundla Ephakamileyo, inikela imvume yokucombulula iimbambano phakathi kwamazwe. La matyala asenokubandakanya iimbambano zomda, amalungelo amanzi, okanye ezinye iimfazwe ezingenako ukuconjululwa ngeenkqubo zobupolitika. Ngokulungiselela inkundla yezomthetho kwiingxoxo zamazwe ahlukeneyo, iinkundla zesizwe zinceda ekulondolozeni ulwalamano oluseluxolweni phakathi kwamazwe.

Ukufikelela kwiiNkundla Zomanyano: Ulwazelelelo Olusebenzisekayo

Kubantu ngabanye nakumashishini ababandakanyekileyo kwiimbambano ezingokwasemthethweni, kubalulekile ukuqonda ixesha nendlela yokufikelela kwiinkundla zikarhulumente.

Ukuqonda Inkundla Efanelekileyo

Inyathelo lokuqala kulwahlulelo kukwenza isigqibo ukuba yiyiphi inkundla enegunya phezu kwembambano. Oku kufuna ukuba uhlalutyo lubandakanya imibuzo karhulumente, enoba kukho ulawulo oluhlukeneyo, nokuba ngaba ikho na imithetho ekhethekileyo esebenzayo. Ukukhetha inkundla engalunganga kungaphumela ekugxothweni kwetyala kwaye kudlale ixesha kunye noovimba.

Ii-athorney kufuneka zivavanye iingenelo neengxaki zenkundla yorhulumente kunye neyaserhulumenteni xa kukho ulawulo olumanyeneyo. Iinkundla zoManyano zinganika iinkqubo ezithe ngqo, iijaji ezinemava kwimimandla ethile yomthetho, kunye nequmrhu labachopheli-tyala elingafaniyo. Iinkundla zeli lizwe zinganikela isigqibo esikhawulezileyo, ukuqhelana okungakumbi nemiba yasekuhlaleni, kwaye zisenokukholiswa ngakumbi ngumthetho ongaphantsi.

Ukuqonda Iinkqubo Zenkundla Yomanyano

Iinkundla zoManyano zilandela imithetho engqalileyo elawula yonke into ukusuka kwindlela izikhalazo ezibekwa ngayo ukuya kwindlela obunikelwa ngayo ubungqina ekuchotshelweni kwetyala. IMithetho yoLawulo lwaMasipala ilawula amatyala asekuhlaleni, ngelixa iMithetho yoManyano yePhondo ilawula amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho. IMithetho yeQumrhu ye-Ecrebral isebenza kuwo omabini amatyala oluntu nawamatyala.

Le mithetho yenzelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba ikho, isebenza kakuhle, yaye iyavisisana kuzo zonke iinkundla zikarhulumente. Kodwa ke, inokuba nzima kwaye icebise amaqela asenkundlani karhulumente ukuba asebenze namagqwetha asele ekho.

Ukubaluleka Komelo Olusemthethweni

Ngoxa amaqela enelungelo lokuzimela kwinkundla yesizwe (esaziwa ngokuba "ipro se"), ukuntsonkotha kweenkqubo zorhulumente kunye nomthetho ophantsi kwenza ukusetyenziswa komthetho kube kokucetyiswa kakhulu kwiimeko ezininzi. Abagwebi boManyano kunye nabasebenzi benkundla abanako ukunikela icebiso elisemthethweni ekuququzeleleni amatyala, kwaye indlela esesikweni yemicimbi yephondo inokuba lucelomngeni kwabo bangaqeqeshwanga ngokwasemthethweni.

Uphuhliso Lwakutshanje Nocelomngeni Lwangoku

Inkqubo yenkundla yelifa lesizwe iyaqhubeka iguquka ngenxa yokutshintsha kweemfuno zoluntu, ubugcisa nokutshintsha kwamatyala.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kwiiNkundla zoManyano

Iinkundla zomanyano zikhokelele ngokwandayo ubugcisa bokuphucula ufikelelo kubulungisa nokwandisa ukusebenza. Iinkqubo ze-electronic zivumela amagqwetha ukuba afake amaxwebhu kude, kwaye iinkundla ezininzi ngoku zinika unikezelo kwi-intanethi kwiingxelo zenkundla kwinkqubo ye-PACER. Ividiyo edityanisiweyo iye yaxhaphaka kwiintlobo ezithile zokuchongwa kwetyala, ingakumbi emva kwesifo se-COVID-19.

Ulawulo lofakelo loonobumba

Iinkundla zoManyano zijamelana nocelomngeni oluqhubekayo ekulawuleni ityala lazo ngokunempumelelo. Inani leejaji zequmrhu azikhange zigcine isantya nokwanda kwabemi nokuntsonkotha okukhulayo, nto leyo ekhokelela ekuxhalabiseni ukulibaziseka kwesigqibo setyala. Ngamaxesha athile iBhunga liqwalasela umthetho wokwenza iijaji ezongezelelekileyo, kodwa inkqubo yokumiswa inokuba yeyokucotha neyokulwa kwezobupolitika.

Iindawo ezijikelezayo zoMthetho woManyano

Iinkundla zomanyano ziyaqhubeka zizama ukumelana nokuvela kwemiba engokwasemthethweni kwiindawo ezifana nokungakhuseleki kwekhompyutha, ukuvalwa kwenkcazelo, ubukrelekrele obungeyonyaniso nokungaqiniseki. Le miba intsha idla ngokufuna ukuba iinkundla zisebenzise imigaqo yezomthetho kwiimeko ezintsha zobugcisa, maxa wambi zinwebe imigaqo esemthethweni ekhoyo kwiindlela ezintsha.

Imithombo Yokufunda Okungakumbi Ngeenkundla Zomanyano

Abo banomdla wokufunda okungakumbi ngenkqubo yenkundla yelifa lesizwe, kukho oovimba abaninzi. Iwebsite esemthethweni yamatyala ase-U.S. ( www.ustourts.gov) inikela iinkcukacha ezibanzi malunga nesakhiwo senkundla, iinkqubo, kunye nezibonelelo zemfundo. Le ndawo iquka izikhokelo zejaji, ulwazi malunga neendlu zenkundla ezityeleleyo, kunye nezinto zokufundisa abafundi kunye nabafundisi.

ISebe le-website yeJaji ( www.construct.gov) linikela inkcazelo emalunga nokugcinwa komthetho nentsebenziswano. Iinkundla zorhulumente ngamnye zigcina iiwebhsayithi zazo ezinemithetho, iifomu, nolwazi malunga neenkqubo ezithile.

Abo banomdla kulandelwa kwetyala leNkundla ePhakamileyo, i-website yeNkundla ( www.upremecourt.gov) inikezela ngonikezelo kwiimbono, iintetho eziphumayo kunye neerekhodi zesandi, kunye nekhalenda yeNkundla. Imibutho emininzi, iquka i-SCOTUSblog, inikela uhlalutyo oluneenkcukacha kunye nokugqabaza kwiimeko zeNkundla ePhakamileyo nezigqibo.

Izikolo zomthetho nemibutho esemthethweni idla ngokunikela iinkqubo zikawonke-wonke kunye nemfundo kwiinkundla zenkundla.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo yesizwe yilungu elintsonkothileyo kodwa eliyimfuneko ledemokhrasi yaseMerika. Ukusuka kwiinkundla zesithili ezisingatha iinkundla ukuya kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo ephendula eyona mibuzo ibalulekileyo yezomthetho, iinkundla zelifa lesizwe zidlala indima ebalulekileyo ekutolikeni komthetho wesizwe, ekukhuseleni amalungelo omGaqo-siseko, nokuqinisekisa ukuba okusesikweni kulawulwa ngokusesikweni nangokungakhethi cala.

Ukuqonda isakhiwo seenkundla zikarhulumente, igunya lazo, nendlela ezahluke ngayo kwiinkundla zikarhulumente lulwazi oluxabisekileyo kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela inkqubo yomthetho yaseMerika esebenza ngayo. Nokuba ungumfundi ofunda urhulumente, umnini-mashishini ofunda urhulumente, okanye ummi onomdla kwindlela amalungelo akho akhuselwe ngayo, ulwazi lwenkqubo yenkundla yelo lizwe lukunika amandla okuqonda nokuzibandakanya nesebe lorhulumente eligwebayo.

Iinkundla zikarhulumente ziyaqhubeka ziguquka ukuze zihlangabezane neengxaki ezintsha ngeli xesha zigcina indima yazo esisiseko njengabalondolozi bomGaqo-siseko nomthetho wesizwe. Ngokulungiselela iprojekthi yokucombulula iimpikiswano, ukukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye, nokuqinisekisa umthetho, iinkundla zephondo zise ligumbi ledemokhrasi yaseMerika nelomzekelo weenkqubo zokugweba ehlabathini lonke.