Isiseko Sorhulumente Olinganiselweyo

Umgaqo worhulumente olinganiselweyo ulungelelaniswa nemithetho-siseko yaseMerika. Imvelaphi yawo ibuyela kwiMagna Carta yowe-1215, eyathi okokuqala yagxininisa ukuba amandla okumkani ayengengaphelelanga kwaye kwanokumkani kwakufuneka athobele umthetho. Iinkcuba - buchopho ezikhanyiselweyo njengoJohn Locke walwela amalungelo emvelo – ubomi, inkululeko, nempahla – nto leyo enokuthi akukho rhulumente enokuthi ngokusemthethweni angayisusa, kwaye uBaron de Montesquieus, umele ukukhuthaza ukwahlulwa kwamandla njengesivikelo ekuchaseni ingqwalaze. UmGaqo-siseko weU., ophenjelelwe kakhulu zezi ngcamango, owenziwe ngurhulumente apho igunya lesizwe liqhekeka ngabomkhethe. Bakholelwa ukuba ngokuphanga amasebe nomgangatho karhulumente, banokunqanda ukunyuka kwento entlalonye isiseko nokukhuselwa kwenkululeko yabantu.

Ukwahlukana Kwamandla

UmGaqo-siseko umisela amasebe amathathu alinganayo, ngalinye elinikwe imisebenzi eyahlukileyo. Inqaku I-I libeka igunya lowiso-mthetho kwiBhunga, iGatya II linika uMongameli igunya elilawulayo, iGatya III libeka igunya lokugweba kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo nakwinkundla eziphantsi. Eli candelo liqinisekisa ukuba akukho siko ngalinye lorhulumente linokusebenzisa lonke igunya ngoko nangoko.

  • Isebe elinomthetho: Congress - ekhiwe yiNdlu yabameli neBhunga leNtlanga – liqumrhu lokwenza umthetho. Liphethe amandla emali yemali, ligunyazisa urhulumente ukuchitha imali, libhengeza imfazwe, kwaye lilawula urhwebo lwamanye amazwe. Ngeekomiti zalo zolawulo, iBhunga likwalawula ukuphunyezwa kwemithetho lisebe eliphetheyo.
  • Isebe eliphetheyo: uMongameli, njengomphathi-mikhosi oyintloko, onyanzelisayo nowokumisela imithetho karhulumente, oyalela imikhosi exhobileyo, oqhuba inkqubo yamanye amazwe, omisela abagwebi noomphathi abakhulu besebe eliphetheyo. Isebe eliphetheyo likwaquka amasebe amaninzi akhupha imimiselo kwaye aphumeze ulawulo lwangomhla wama-286to662.
  • [[NTL:0] Isebe leMigaqo-siseko: Iinkundla zephondo, ezifikelela kwincopho kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, ezitolika imithetho nomGaqo-siseko. Zisombulula iimpikiswano, zigqiba ubulunga bomGaqo-siseko wezenzo zowiso-mthetho kunye nezolawulo, kwaye zinika abantu ingxubusho yokucel ’ umngeni urhulumente.

Umbhalo wokuqala wenqaku ngalinye unokufundwa kuMgaqo-siseko Onconywayo, ogcinwe yiThala leencwadi leNgqungquthela.

Iipeksi Nolungelelwano

Ukwahlukana ngamagunya kuphela bekungayi kwanele ukuba isebe ngalinye linokusebenza ngokwalo. Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela inika isebe ngalinye izixhobo zokunciphisa amanye, kudala isaziso esinempembelelo sokuziphendulela.

  • Uvavanyo lobungangamsha kuMongameli: Congress ingayigqitha ivoti kunye nesibini sesithathu sovoti emagumbini omabini, ingavumi ukuqinisekisa ii-presidenties, ikhanyela inkxaso-mali yamanyathelo aphezulu, kwaye isusa uMongameli ngenxa “yesizathu, ukunyotywa, okanye obunye ulwaphulo-mthetho obuphezulu kunye nabasebenzi abangalunganga."
  • Iingqikelelo ezikhoyo kwiBhunga: UMongameli usebenzisa amandla eveto kumthetho, angabiza iKhomyutha kwintlanganiso ekhethekileyo, kwaye angakhupha imiyalelo yesebe elawulayo ekhonga indlela imithetho enyanzelekileyo enyanzelekileyo ngayo – nangona imiyalelo enjalo ihlala iphantsi kohlalutyo lwezomthetho kunye nezigqibo zenkxaso-mali.
  • Ukuvavanya okuqulethwe yi-judicial kumasebe omabini: Iinkundla, ngamandla okuhlola okugweba, zingabetha imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ezichasene nomGaqo-siseko. UMongameli umisa abagwebi, kodwa kufuneka ziqinisekiswe yiBhunga, kwaye xa sele ziqinisekisiwe, zisebenzela ubomi, zibukhusela kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika.
  • ICheckers kwijaji: Congress ingaguqula igunya leenkundla ezincinci, icebisa iinguquko zomgaqo-siseko ukubhukuqa iinkcazelo zomthetho, kwaye (nangokuba kunqabile ukusetyenziswa) abagwebi borhulumente abagqwethe ngehambo engafanelekanga.

Ukuze ufumane imizekelo engakumbi yendlela iichekekhwe nolungelelwano olusebenza ngayo, iWeb site yeNdlu yeeNtlanga yaseUnited States inikela ushwankathelo oluluncedo.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo

UmGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo wawungaquki uludwe oluneenkcukacha lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye, isibakala esabangela ukothuswa kwabachasi bephondo. Ukuze akhusele ukukhutshwa kweminxeba, uJames Madison wacebisa uthotho lweenguquko ezathi zaba yiBhili yamaLungelo, ezagunyaziswa ngowe-1791. Ezi zindululo zilishumi zithintele amandla karhulumente karhulumente yaye ngokuthe ngcembe ziye zandiswa ukusebenzisa ngokuchasene norhulumente ngomgaqo ofanelekileyo wenkqubo yeGajijithe yeshumi elinesine.

  • Uhlaziyo lokuqala: Imithetho ebhekisele ekumisweni konqulo, ephazamisa ukusetyenziswa kwenkululeko yokuthetha, yokushicilela, yendibano enoxolo, okanye ilungelo lokucela urhulumente ukuba alungise izikhalazo. Le yindawo ephantsi kwenkcazo yedemokhrasi.
  • [[NTLA:0] Uhlaziyo oluqulunqweyo: lukhusela ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha iingalo, ilungelo elithe iNkundla Ephakamileyo yalichaza njengelungelo lomntu ngamnye oneemeko ezingokwembali (umz., imiqathango yokungaphathi kwetyala).
  • [[NTL:0] IsiHlalisi-Mpanzi soMgaqo-nkqubo we-FLT: Ugada nxamnye nokuphengululwa okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula. Ukugcinwa komthetho kusoloko kufuna isiqinisekiso esixhaswe yisizathu esinokwenzeka, kwaye ubungqina obufunyenweyo bokwaphulwa kwesi sigwebo busoloko bukhutshwa phantsi komthetho wokucalulwa.
  • UHlaliso lweNkqutyana: luqinisekisa ukumangalelwa okukhulu kwabachopheli-tyala abangoovimba abanzulu, luthintela iingozi eziphindwe kabini, lukhusela nxamnye nokuzirhwebisa, luqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uhluthwa ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efunekayo yomthetho. Ikwaquka ukuthatha u-Clause, ifuna imbuyiselo xa impahla yabucala ithatyathwa ukuze isetyenziswe nguwonke-wonke.
  • [[FLT: 0] UHlaliso lweNkqutyana: Ibheyile egqithisileyo, intlawulo egqithisileyo, nesohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga. Oku kulungisa isiseko seengxoxo malunga neemeko zentolongo, isigwebo sokufa, kunye nesigwebo esiphantsi esinyanzelekileyo.

Ingcaciso epheleleyo kunye nemvelaphi yembali yotshintsho ngalunye lukhona kugcino-lwazi lwesiZwe.

Umanyano: Ukwahlulwa Kwegunya Phakathi Kohlanga NamaMerika

Umanyano lwahlula ulawulo phakathi korhulumente wesizwe norhulumente, ngamnye onegunya elizimeleyo kwimicimbi ethile. Esi sakhiwo sinikela ukhuseleko oluphindwe kabini ekuxhatshazweni: abemi bahlala phantsi koorhulumente ababini abahlukeneyo, ngamnye unegunya lokuhlola omnye.

  • Amandla esizwe (amiselwe): umGaqo-siseko unika urhulumente wesizwe igunya kwimibandela yemali yesizwe – ukuveliswa kwemali, ukusungula imfazwe, ukulawula urhwebo phakathi kwelizwe kunye namazwe angaphandle, ukuqhuba unxulumano, nokuseka imithetho yendalo efanayo.
  • Isimo (esigciniweyo) samandla:[ UHlaziyo lweshumi lama-10 lushiya kumazwe onke amagunya angagunyaziswanga eUnited States okanye angagunyaziswanga kumazwe. Oku kuquka ukugcinwa kwamapolisa, imfundo, urhwebo, ukusetyenziswa komhlaba, imithetho yomtshato, kunye nonyulo.
  • Amandla akhoyo: omabini amanqanaba karhulumente angahlawulwa, akhe iindlela, aboleke imali, baseke iinkundla, kunye nokunyanzelisa imithetho kwiindawo apho igunya lidibana khona. Xa urhulumente norhulumente engqubana, iSupremacy Claus yemGaqo-siseko ngokuqhelekileyo yenza umthetho worhulumente ube ngowokuqala.

Umanyano alumi nje. Ekuhambeni kweenkulungwane, ukwanda kwegunya lesizwe ngomgaqo-nkqubo wezorhwebo namandla okusebenzisa imali kuye kwasusa umlinganiselo, ukanti amatyala ahlala eyiolebhurejini yedemokhrasi, azama iinkqubo ezinokusetyenziswa kamva ngokwesizwe. Iimfazwe ze-Contemporary – njengenkcaso yemeko karhulumente ephikisanayo nemithetho karhulumente yeziyobisi, okanye ukuchasa urhulumente ekunyanzelweni kolawulo lwezangaphakathi lwezangaphakathi loburhulumente, okanye ukuhlaseleka okuqhubekayo koburhulumente bolawulo oluphindiweyo.

Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Ekuchazeni Imida Yamandla

INkundla ePhakamileyo ingumtoliki opheleleyo womGaqo-siseko, kwaye izigqibo zayo zichaza imida yegunya likarhulumente. Imfundiso yohlolo lomthetho yasekwa ku- Marbury v. Madison (1803), xa iJaji ePhakamileyo uJohn Marshall yaqinisekisa amandla eNkundla ukuvakalisa isenzo seNkundla engekho mgaqo-siseko. Eli tyala lanika ijajidisi uvavanyo olubalulekileyo kumthetho kunye namasebe olawulo oluphezulu.

Izigqibo zophawu lwelizwe zinyukile okanye zafikelela kwimida yamandla karhulumente. MCULLOch v. Maryland (1819) yaqinisekisa igunya elibanzi lezwe phantsi kwe-ICelaus, ngexesha [ New York v. United States[FLT][3] [FLT]] [[FLT]] [[FLT] Printz v. United States[FFLT:5]] [1997]) iphinde yabuyisela amandla eCongressbars kwigunya yolawulo yorhulumente. Integrafecter contssion of Bust v [FFM], kunye negrouniverses , ulawulo lwe-ograndment (iiiiiiievice-Afk) (iekhosi) (indlela esezantsi).[9] kulawulo olupheleleyo, urhulumente lombuso-utho, u-unicel.[9]

Ucelomngeni Olulandelayo Lokuthintela Urhulumente

Ulawulo lwangoku luvavanya imida yesiseko somGaqo-siseko wokuqala. Imimandla emininzi idala impikiswano enzulu yokuba urhulumente uye wegqitha kusini na kwimida yakhe efanelekileyo.

Imfundo Nento Efihlakeleyo

Ubuchule bukarhulumente bokuqokelela ugcino-lwazi kubemi bakhona buye bakhula kakhulu ukususela kuhlaselo lwe-11. Umthetho we-USA PRITIOT yaye kamva kwanyuswa izindululo zolawulo lwe-elektroniki, iirekhodi zokhuseleko lwezoshishino, nokusebenzisa iileta zokhuseleko lwesizwe. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba ukujongwa kwabantu abaninzi kuchasene nophengululo olungekho ngqiqweni, ngoxa abaxhasi bemi ngelithi izixhobo ezinjalo zibalulekile ekulwisaneni nolwaphulo-mthetho. Carpenter v. United States [2017], iNkundleko ephakamileyo yeNkulawula ithetha ukuba urhulumente usoloko efuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana iingxelo zembali yeeseli, imiqondiso yokuba iindawo zobuqu zifumane ukhuseleko lomgaqo-mGwaljikelo-mthetho. Kodwa imidalo ishiye ikhuselwa, ingakumbi ukukhuselwa kolwazi olutsha lwezobumbo olufana nolwezo lwezo lwezobukhompume.

Imiyalelo yegunya nesenzo esingahambisaniyo

Abalawuli bobabini basebenzisa imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo nezinye izixhobo ezingasetyenziswanga ngabo baququzelela inkqubo yokufikelela iinjongo zomthetho xa iBhunga livaliwe. Umzekelo, imiyalelo yabalawuli iye yasetyenziselwa ukuzalisekisa utshintsho lokufuduka, imimiselo yemekobume, kunye neenkqubo zokubolekisa ngomnye umfundi. Ngoxa uMongameli enengqiqo ephangaleleyo yokukhokela isebe eliphetheyo, iinkundla ziye zathi ngamanye amaxesha zawisa imithetho yokuba ukuphambuka igunya lemikhosi okanye ukungqubana ngenjongo yombutho. Umba obalulekileyo [[FLTL: 0] ulutsha olunoMongameli shejinga i- ````ICube Co. v. sawer'''. [FLTLTY1] [1952] zibeke umda wezama ukuthatha izinyithi zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yase Korea, ukumisela ukuba uMongameli angakwazi ukutshintsha umthetho. Criadioperationtionstionss promieantstionsssss aqhubeke imigaqo yokuvavanya le provices.

IRhulumente Yolawulo

Amasebe azimeleyo anjengendawo Engqongileyo Yokukhusela Imeko-bume, iKhomishini yeSizwe ne-Exchange, kunye neSebe lezeMpilo neNkonzo Yoluntu zikhupha amawaka emimiselo nyaka ngamnye enegunya lomthetho. Lo “rhulumente” uphakamisa imibuzo yokuba iBhunga lokulawula liye lanika amagosa amandla amakhulu nangawalawulanga. Imfundiso yeNkundla ePhakamileyo (iNkundla ePhakamileyo"iNkulwayo" (isuka [[FLT: 0]]]Chevron U.S.A.I.A. v. iZibonelo zendalo zeSivumelwano sokhuselo-Mkhosi [[[, 1984]) ikhombelo olubhekiswe kumasebe okucacisa imimiselo ecacileyo. Noko ke, iye yabona ukurhoxakeka kweNkupho yezopolitikithi okanye ukulawulwa kwezelelwa kwemicimbi yezopolitikitiki kudinga ukugunya elicacileyo. [ieF.] [ift]

ISebe leMicimbi yeNkcubeko neNkxaso

Indima karhulumente wezonyango imela umzabalazo ongapheliyo kwimida yemithetho yezorhwebo kunye namandla okurhafisa. Umthetho womntu ngamnye kuMthetho weNtolongo eMandleni – ofuna ukuba abantu bathenge i-inshorensi yezempilo – waxhaswa njengerhafu NFIB v. Sebelius[FLT], kodwa iNkundla ayizange ivume ngokucacileyo impikiswano yokuba iNkundla inyanzelela umsebenzi wezorhwebo. Kamva imingeni yokufuna iMedicaid yandisa nokubiza ingeniso engakumbi i-ofisini ithengise imida engakumbi yokusetyenziswa kwamandla karhulumente. Njengoko imithetho emitsha yezonyango nezicelo zempilo ivela, ukuxinezeleka phakathi kobugxaso kunye ne-eyunifo yamazwe kuhlala kuyinto entle.

Ukufuduka noRhulumente 19)

Inkqubo yodityaniso ye-SB 1070 icebe ukumiswa okusemthethweni. Ngelixesha urhulumente wesizwe enamandla okulawula ukuhlaliswa kwendalo nokugcinwa komda, amazwana aye azama ukulawula abaphambukeli abangaxelwanga ngemithetho yabo siqu – umzekelo, iSB 1070 karhulumente efunekayo eArizona ukuvavanya ukuma okungena kwabantu ngexesha lokuma okusemthethweni. Arizora v. United States [20202], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yahlasela amalungiselelo amaninzi njengoko akhutshelwe ngumthetho worhulumente kodwa yashiya ingadinwanga “ukundibonisa amaxwebhu akho”. Ngokulandelela izixeko ezingcwele, ukuvalwa komsebenzi wolawulo, kunye nodweliso lwezicwangciso lwe-Ovector Accorection for Youvectors [AC] uqhubekela ukubuza imibuzo ngemiqatha yegunya nents mvume.

Inkqubo yePandemic kunye namandla exesha likaxakeka

Isifo se-COVID 16) sabona oorhulumente kuwo onke amanqanaba bebeka imiyalelo yokuvala, amasigqubuthelo esisigxina, ukuvalwa kweshishini, kunye neemfuno zokugoma. Ezi zenzo zabangela imingeni yomGaqo-siseko phantsi koMgunyathi wokuqala (umbutho wonqulo), inkqubo efunekayo (inkululeko yezoqoqosho), kunye nemigaqo ye-rhulumente (igunya lasekuhlaleni). INkundla ePhakamileyo, kwiimeko ezifana i-Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo, isithintela ukuba kubekho imiqathango yonqulo, ibambe ukuba babengathathi calal'asel'asel'inkonzo, yaye iyasebenza. Ingxolo ekhoyo ibalase ingakumbi ubugxakeka phakathi kwemiyalelo yezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezonyango nezomthetho-oglobal, kunye nolawulo lwezomthetho-ogralitiki.

Ubugcisa, Intetho Namandla Karhulumente

Ukuvela kwamacandelo onxibelelwano olungokwasentlalweni kuye kwayintsonkotha indlela yokulungisa imekobume yoluntu. Imithetho karhulumente eTexas naseFlorida efuna ukulawula ubungcathu obufanelekileyo ngeeplatfomu ezinkulu iye yacelw'ucelw'ucelomngeni njengokungathobeli kwamalungelo eenkampani zabucala okuthetha, lo gama urhulumente wengingqi ethethana neenkampani zezezentlalo-ntle eyingozi ethetha ngezobugrogrisi. Ngoku iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo iphazamisana norhulumente ukuba anganyanzelela amaqonga ukuba athethe ngenye indlela, nokuba ngaba urhulumente uzama ukuvala iMpaso-mthetho Wokuqala. La matyala amela umda omtsha kwingxoxo karhulumente elinganiselwe kunyaka karhulumente.

Isiphelo

Ukuqonda imida yamandla kurhulumente wase-U.S. kubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuba ukumiselwa kolawulo – ukwahlukana kwamagunya, ukuxilonga nokulinganisela, iBhili yamaLungelo, kunye norhulumente – kusesisiseko, kodwa isizukulwana ngasinye kufuneka sichaze size sisebenzise le migaqo kwiingxaki ezintsha. Iimbambano zokuhlola ukujongwa kwamachiza zibonisa ukuba urhulumente onegunya elingaphi na akufunekanga asombululekelwe. Kubafundisi-mfundo nabafundi, ukuhlolisisa le mida akunikezi nje kuphela ukufundisa okusemthethweni kodwa kunika noxabiso olunzulu lwemilinganiselo yedemokhrasi elawula iMelika. Ngokuhlolisisa iingcambu yembali, izakhiwo, imicimbi yanamhlanje, abahlalisayo banokuba nenxaxheba kwiprojelo eqhubekayo yokugcina urhulumente ofanelekileyo.