Ulongamo Olumanyeneyo Lwesizwe SaseMerika

Inkqubo yomthetho yaseUnited States isebenza phantsi kohlobo olwahlukileyo lolawulo olumabini lwamagunya orhulumente. Esi sakhiwo, esiqulunqwe kumGaqo-siseko, sidala ulwalamano oluntsonkothileyo nolunempembelelo phakathi korhulumente wesizwe noorhulumente abangamashumi amahlanu. Abafundi kunye nabafundisi abafuna ukuqonda indlela amalungelo omntu ngamnye akhuselwa ngayo, ukuqonda ukuqukwa kwamalungelo orhulumente norhulumente worhulumente akuyonkqubo yemfundo yemfundo, kwaye ayiyomfuneko esebenzayo yokufumana inxaxheba nokufunda ngokusemthethweni. I-Federanisism yenzelwe ukukhuthaza umanyano nolwahlukaniso, ivumela ukukhuselwa komanyano lwesizwe xa ithetha ngolawulo nolwahlulo lwengingqi. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa izicwangciso-mthetho, imimiselo ebhaliweyo, ukucaciswa kwezomthetho, kunye neengxaki eziqhubekayo ezichaza ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo ezweyo kwinkqubo yesizwe eMelika.

Isizukulwana esisekiweyo saphikisana ngogonyamelo ngolungelelwano olufanelekileyo lwamandla. AbaLanti-Federalist babesoyika urhulumente okude, onamandla, ngeli xesha amaFederali aphikisa umanyano olomeleleyo olunokukwazi ukukhusela inkululeko kunye norhwebo. Isiphumo sokulalanisa/inkqubo edityanisiweyo (inkqubo edityanisiweyo) apho oorhulumente besizwe kunye noorhulumente benegunya elithe ngqo kubemi...

Ukwakhiwa kwamaLungelo koMgaqo-siseko

IBhili yamaLungelo noMthetho we-14

Isiseko sokhuseleko lwamalungelo e-U.S. sibalasele ngokudumileyo kumGaqo-siseko. Uxwebhu lwantlandlolo, ecaleni kweBhili yamaLungelo (iziphendu zokuqala ezilishumi, ezagunyaziswa ngo-1791), lumisela umgaqo-siseko wenkululeko urhulumente angenakuyiphazamisa. Ezi zikhuseli ziquka inkululeko yokuthetha, unqulo, ukushicilela, indibano, kunye nesibongozo (Umphetho wokuqala); ilungelo lokuthwala izixhobo (uLawulo olupheleleyo); ukukhusela ekuphangweni nokuxhwaleka okungekho ngqiqweniyo (uMpheliso-phantsi woMphengululo wesi); namalungelo okuchasene nokuzikhusela okuziphetheyo kunye nokuzibeka ngokuphindiweyo (ukuzikhupha umgaqo-mthetho).

Noko ke, uMphetho we-10 ucacisa ukuba amagunya angazange anikwe iUnited States ngoMgaqo-siseko agcinelwe i-United States. Esi sithuba sinika igunya elikhulu lokuyila ukhuseleko lwaso olusemthethweni, ngokufuthi adlulela ngaphaya komgangatho wesizwe omiswe yiBhunga okanye yiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente namandla karhulumente kunye norhulumente lwatshintshwa ngokusisiseko yinkqubo yeSigqibo se-14 seSigqibo soMmiselo ngo-1868. Ukhuseleko lwaso kunye neSikomkiso sika-Celascle lwaso lwadala isixhobo esinamandla sokusebenzisa imilinganiselo karhulumente kwizenzo zikarhulumente. I-Incorporation Doctiveginectives, lwaphuhliswa ngokuthe ngceleleka ngezo zeNkuhlela yama-20 yeNkundla Ephakamileyo, lwasebenzisa amalungiselelo amaninzi eenkqubo kaBill yamaLungelo kumazwe asebenzisa le 14 kulawulo olu-14, ukuqinisekisa ukuba oorhulumente babotshelelwe ngenkqubo engundoqo. Oku kwazenze ngokwamatyala; oku kunokwenzeka ngetyala elifanelekileyo, oorhulumente abacubango banokuqinisekisa ukuba oorhulumente abafanelekileyo,

Ukhuthuzo oluzizizinzileyo nokhukuliso

ISupremacy Claus (Article VI, Claus 2) ivakalisa ukuba umthetho woMgaqo-siseko kunye nemithetho karhulumente owenziwe ukuba uhlale uphakamile nguMthetho "wokukhulula weLizwe". Lo mgaqo ngulwando lwemithetho yesizwe, uqinisekisa ukuba imithetho karhulumente ayinako ukuphelisa ukumiswa kwemithetho esemthethweni esemthethweni. Xa urhulumente norhulumente engquzulanayo, umthetho wesizwe uza kuphumelela phantsi kwemfundiso yokukhulula. Umthetho wesizwe uyakwazi ukuchaza ngokucacileyo, apho iNgqungquthela ichaza injongo yayo yokuhlala emasimini, okanye ichazwe ngokucacileyo, apho ummiselo wolawulo worhulumente ungenakushiya indawo esemthethweni elungelelaniswa nemithetho yomthetho elungele ukufuduka.

IMithetho yoManyano njengeSizwe samaLungelo

IBhunga linegunya elibalulekileyo phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-mda we-14 kunye neMithendeleko kaClaus yokumisela imithetho ekhusela amalungelo abantu. Le mithetho yesizwe isebenza ngokufanayo kulo lonke eli lizwe, imisela umgangatho omncinane ekufuneka ufikelelwe ngawo onke amazwe. Ama-odolo avunyelwa ukuba adlule le milinganiselo, kodwa akanakuthotywa ngaphantsi kwayo.

Amalungelo asekuhlaleni nongquzulwano oluchaseneyo

UMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964 umi njengempumelelo enkulu kumthetho wesizwe. Wawulugweba ucalucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, imibala, unqulo, isini, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe emsebenzini (isihloko VII), iindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke (isihloko II), kunye neenkqubo ezixhaswa ngurhulumente (isihloko VI). Oku kwenza ukuba i-Cuvilic Reconstmentmentmentment i-America ikwazi ukuphinda i-phinde ifumane intlawulo olugqwethekileyo ngokunqanda ucalucalulo nokuphathwa ngendlela engalinganiyo. ISivume samalungelo esiSihlalisayo sonyaka ka-1991 (i-199) someleza ukhuseleko nesohlwayo kwimiqathango-mali yetyala. Umthetho we-Federal alwa nomthetho we-dictive-dict wokwa-luvotion (igracration) kwakhona ngo-1968, nto leyo ithintela ucalucalucalucalucalucalu-lu-lucalu-lu-lucalu-lu-lu-lu-lu lwabiwo lomthetho lomthetho

Ulawulo lwezibonelelo

UMthetho weVoting Rights ka-1965 wasusa imiqobo emide ekuvoteni, njengovavanyo lokubhalisa, iirhafu, kunye nosoyikiso. Elona lungiselelo lamandla laliliCandelo 5, elalifuna ukulawulwa okunembali yocalulo "preclear" naluphi na utshintsho ekuvotelweni kwemithetho norhulumente worhulumente. Ngelixesha isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo Shelby County v. Raker [2013]) ngokunempumelelo igalelo lobuko localulo, ukhuseleko olungundoqo ekukhethelelweni kwemilo olusekelwe kulawulo lohlanga lushiye lunganyanzelwa phantsi kweCandelo 2 loMthetho.

Amalungelo Okuphelelwa Kwamalungelo Namathuba Emfundo

Amalungu oMthetho weDrugment Education (IDEA) kunye neCandelo lama-504 loMthetho wokuHlaziywa kowe-1973 aqinisekisa ukuba abafundi abaneziphene bafumana imfundo kawonke-wonke yamahhala nefanelekileyo kwimeko-bume engqongqo. AMelika enoMthetho (ADA) we-1990 oneziphene ezikhubazekileyo wandisa ingxubevange yokukhusela abantu abaneziphene emsebenzini, iindlwana zikawonke wonke, ezothutho, kunye nezonxibelelwano, kufuna indawo yokuhlala elungeleleneyo ukuqinisekisa ukuba amathuba alinganayo. UMthetho weSiphengululo sika-ADAAAAA, owaziswe ngokuba yi-AAAAAA, wandisa ingcaciso yokuzinziswa kwemiqatha le nkcazelo yokuzikhuseliselwa kwe-AAAA.

Imithetho kaRhulumente njengemibutho yokuHlakulelwa

UJaji Louis Brandeis uchazwa ngokuba ngurhulumente odumileyo. Kummandla wokhuseleko lwamalungelo, oku kungqineke kuchanile ngokuphindaphindiweyo. Ngoxa umthetho wesizwe ubeka umgangatho, imithetho karhulumente idla ngokwakha uphahla oluphezulu, uzama imigaqo enokuthi kamva iphembele imigangatho yesizwe.

Ukwandisa ukhuseleko oluchasene nongquzulwano

Umthetho olwa nocalucalulo osuka kumanyano lobuzwe, imibala, unqulo, isini kunye nemvelaphi yesizwe. Amazwe amaninzi aye andisa imimiselo yawo elwa nocalucalulo ukuze aquke ngokucacileyo ukhuseleko olusekelwe kwimbonakalo yesondo nangokobufanasini. Amazwe anjenge New York, California, ne-Illinois anike imithetho eqinisekisa ukuba abantu abanoluvo olukhuselekileyo emsebenzini, emakhaya, kwizindlu, nakwizindlu zikawonke wonke. Ngokufanayo, amanye amazwe aye amisela imithetho ekhusela ukukhusela ukucaluphala okusekelwe kumthombo wengeniso, enceda abahlali abafumana imali abambalwa abasebenzisa ingeniso.

Ubuvulindlela Nokhuseleko Logcino - lwazi

Kukungabikho komthetho wezobuqu obanzi wesizwe, amatyala aye akhokela ekulawuleni ugcino-lwazi. I-California Consumer Ancy Act (CPA), ewiswa ngo-2018, inika abathengi ulawulo olungazange lubonwe ngaphambili kugcino-lwazi lwabo, kuquka ilungelo lokwazi ukuba yiyiphi i-data eqokelelwayo, ilungelo lokuyisusa, nelungelo lokukhetha ukuthengiswa kwayo. Olu tshintsho lomgangatho worhulumente lunyanzele iinkampani zesizwe nezezizwe ngezizwe ukuba zicinge ngemisebenzi yazo yogcino-lwazi kwaye zisebenze njengesikhokelo kwamanye amazwe kunye nomthetho wesizwe onokwenzeka. I-United States enjengoVirginia noColoradow ilandele iiprograms zayo ezintle.

Okusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho Nokugweba Utshintsho

Oorhulumente banegunya eliphambili kumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho. Oku kuye kwavumela umahluko obalulekileyo kwiinkqubo zogwebo, izenzo zobupolisa, kunye nokulungisa okusesikweni. Amazwana amaninzi aye ashukunyiselwa ukubhalisa okanye ukucutha umyadi, inkqubo engqubana ngqo neSigqeba esilawulwa ngurhulumente kodwa ibonisa indlela ezinokuchazwa ngayo izimvo ezicacileyo kumgangatho womthetho wezolwaphulo-mthetho nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Amazwe nawo aye afumana utshintsho kumgangatho ophambili, anciphisa ukuxhomekeka kwimali ebheyili, kwaye asebenzisa iindlela zokufaka iziphazamisi-nkqubo zokufaka ityala ezona tyala ezingekho gazi. Ezi zizenzo zibonisa indlela ezinokuthi zichaze ngayo amalungelo nemicimbi yokugweba kwiimeko ezibonisa amaxabiso kunye neemfuno zasekuhlaleni.

Ukuthobela Iindlela Zokungenelela Phakathi Korhulumente Nomthetho Womanyano

Ulwalamano phakathi komthetho karhulumente noworhulumente lulapho ukuntsonkotha kwemithetho yorhulumente waseMerika kuvela ngokwenene. USupremacy Claus uqinisekisa ukuba umthetho karhulumente uphakamile, kodwa ngaphandle kwemimandla ekhutshiweyo, amagunya asebenzisa igunya elikhulu elikhoyo.

Igunya elikhoyo kunye nomanyano lwamaPhondo

Kwimimandla emininzi yenkqubo, imithetho karhulumente kunye norhulumente esebenzayo ngamacala. Umthetho wokusingqongileyo usoloko ubonakalisa unxibelelwano phakathi kwe-Arhente yokusingqongileyo kunye namasebe okusingqongileyo. Amazwe angamisela imilinganiselo engqongqo yongcoliso kune-rhulumente wesizwe, njengokuba iKhalifoniya isenza ngemilinganiselo yokukhupha inqwelo-moya phantsi koMthetho okhethekileyo we-Ceac Air. Ngokunjalo, imigangatho yemisebenzi efana nomvuzo omncinane umiselwe ngumthetho wesizwe, kodwa amazwe amaninzi agunyazisa umvuzo ophezulu, esebenzisa igunya lawo elisisigxina ukulungiselela ukhuseleko oluphezulu lwabasebenzi. Urhulumente wesizwe ubandakanya ukuxhasa nokuphathana kwemali kunye nolawulo, njengoko kuboniswe eMedid, apho amazwe aqhuba inkqubo phantsi kolawulo olubanzi.

Ubuchule Bokulukuhlwa

Ukucinywa kumele umlinganiselo oyintloko kwigunya likarhulumente. Ukukhulula kwenzeka xa iKhomishini ibandakanya ulwimi kumthetho wesigeqe ochaza ngokucacileyo injongo yayo yokukhulula umthetho wesizwe. Ukuchasana kuyenzeka xa kuthotyelwa phantsi komthetho wombuso kunye nomthetho wesizwe. Ukukhululwa kwenzeka xa inkqubo yolawulo yequmrhu ithe yanda kangangokuba ayishiyi ndawo yomthetho wesizwe. Umzekelo, ukuphelelwa ngumhlala phantsi kwentlawulo wokhuseleko lwezomthetho (ERISA) kutolikwa ukucaciswa ukuphelisa imithetho yesizwe enxulumene neeplani, ukwenza isicwangciso sokulawula solawulo olufanayo lwesizwe. Ukusetyenziswa kwezi mfundiso kudla ngokucazululwa, kufuna uhlalutyo lwenjongo yomthetho yezolawulo kunye neziphumo ezisebenzisekayo zemithetho yesizwe.

Iingxaki Neengxaki

Uxinzeleleko phakathi kozi kumbe ukuzilawula kunye nokulingana kwesizwe luvelisa amanye amadabi aphambili asemthethweni. Ukuchaswa kokunyanzeliswa komthetho wokufuduka, umgaqo wokusingqongileyo, ukunyanyekelwa kwempilo, namalungelo okuvota kusoloko kugxininisa ekubeni amazwe aye aligqitha kusini na igunya lawo okanye enoba urhulumente wesizwe uye wawugqitha na umgaqo-siseko. INkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza njengomxhasi wokugqibela kwezi mpikiswano, ichaza umGaqo-siseko kunye nemimiselo karhulumente ukuchaza imida yorhulumente namandla orhulumente.

Imeko Zophawu Ezalomeleza Umlinganiselo Wamandla

Ukuhlolisisa amatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo kunikela imbono ecacileyo ngendlela umthetho olawulayo nowamagunya okhuseleko lwamalungelo. La matyala akhanyisa imigaqo yobungangamsha, ukuququzelela, nokuphuhliswa korhulumente.

Ukumisela Igunya Lesizwe

  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Inkundla ePhakamileyo, phantsi kweJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall, yathi iBhunga libonise amagunya phantsi koMfaneleko noMhleko uCelas ukuqesha ibhanki yesizwe kwaye urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuhlawula isiko lorhulumente. Eli tyala laseka ngokuqinileyo umgaqo wobukhulu besizwe.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Eli tyala landisa amandla eBhunga phantsi korhwebo luka Claus, libambe elogunya lorhulumente phezu kwemithetho yezorhwebo yengingqi engqubanayo yengingqi. Labeka isiseko samandla karhulumente wexesha elizayo.

Ukukhusela Umntu Ngamnye Ngokuchasene Nesenzo Sikarhulumente

  • Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954): Esi sigqibo sophawu lwembali savakalisa imithetho yemithetho yombuso eyahlulayo izikolo zikarhulumente zabafundi abantsundu nabamhlophe abazahlula phantsi koKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Claus we-14th Amendment. Yajika yatshintsha "imfundiso elinganayo kodwa elinganayo ye Pnety. Ferguson[] yabe isiba sisigqeba sombutho wamalungelo abantu.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Inkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba ukuHlaziya kwe-14 kufune ukuba onke amazwe agunyazise imitshato yokuziphatha okufanayo kwaye aqaphele imitshato eyenziwa kwezinye imimandla. Esi sigqibo sityhafileyo siwise imithetho karhulumente ethintela umtshato kwizibini ezichaseneyo nezobuhlanga, ebonisa indlela ukucaciswa komgaqo-siseko okunokuyalela ngayo ukudibana komthetho kumazwe.

Umanyano Lwanamhlanje Nokhuseleko Lwamalungelo

  • Selby County v. Hoker (2013): INkundla yawisa inkqubo yokugquma eyayisetyenziselwa ukugqiba ukuba ngawaphi amagunya aphantsi kwemithetho emiselwe ngurhulumente phantsi komthetho wamalungelo oluntu. Umthetho wayiphelisa ngokunempumelelo imfuneko yokuzimela kwangaphambili, ukubuyisela igunya eliphambili kumthetho wokuvota kutshintsho kumazwe nakwimimandla. Le meko ibonisa uxinzelelwano oluqhubekayo phakathi komthetho wolawulo nolawulo ekukhuseleni amalungelo okuvota.
  • Dobs v. Jackson Amabhinqa akwintlangano yezempilo (202): INkundla igqibile ukukhupha Roe v. Wade[ kunye [[FLT]]] ne[FLT]] u-Casey, ibambe ukuba uMthendeleko awuliniki lungelo lokukhupha isisu. Isigqibo sabuyisela igunya lokulawula ukuqhomfa kumaphondo, okuphumela kwimisebenzi yemithetho esuka ekuvalweni okupheleleyo ukuya ekukhuselweni. Le meko imele utshintsho olukhulu kulungelelwano kumalungelo omntu ngamnye kunye nomzimba.

Imisebenzi Esebenzisekayo Yemfundo Nemfundo Yesinyithi

Kubafundisi-mfundo nabafundi, ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yolawulo kunika isixhobo esinamandla sokufundisa. Kubonisa ukuba ukukhusela amalungelo asiyomeko emileyo kodwa yinkqubo eqhubekayo yengxoxo, umthetho, kunye nokudityaniswa. Ukuqonda apho ufuna ukuphenduliswa khona ukuze kwaphulwe ulwaphulo, "/"ikwinkundla yephondo okanye yesizwe" bubuchule obusebenzayo.

Iinzame Zokuzisa Umanyano Ebomini

Abafundisi bangaquka imisebenzi eyahlukeneyo kwizifundo zabo zesikolo ukuphuhlisa ukuqonda uburhulumente kunye nokukhusela amalungelo. Ukudibanisa iingxoxo ngeziganeko zangoku ezinxulumene nokhuselo lukarhulumente okanye uphuhliso lwesizwe kuvumela abafundi ukuba balwe neenkxwaleko zehlabathi lokwenene. Iimvavanyo ze-mock kunye nezenzo zenkundla ezisekelwe kumatyala atsha nje eNkundla Ephakamileyo engoyena Uphakamileyo kunceda abafundi baqonde iimpikiswano zomthetho kunye nokuqiqashelwa kwemithetho-siseko nokuthelekisa umGaqo-siseko wesizwe ngokunxulumene nokukhuselwa kwamalungelo azimeleyo kulo lonke ilizwe. Izithethi ezivela kwimibutho efana nesahluko seSivini seZivini seLiberation sombuso saseMelika, iofisi kawonke-wonke, okanye i-ofisi yegosaverhesi-mthetho yezomthetho zinokunikela ukuqonda ngendlela yokusebenza kwezomthetho.

Indima Yemibutho Yokuba Ngumqeshwa

Imibutho engafaki ngeniso idlala indima ebalulekileyo kulwakhiwo lwesizwe. Amaqela afana ne-ACLU, iNaACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, kunye nemibutho esekelwe kurhulumente echaza amatyala enkululeko yabemi kwinkundla zorhulumente nezorhulumente ukuze inyanzelise kwaye yandise amalungelo. Kwakhona abandakanyeke kwimithetho-siseko sowiso-mthetho, enyanzelela ukukhuselwa koorhulumente bobabini abasemagunyeni. Ukuqonda umsebenzi wale mibutho kunika abafundi ulwazi olucacileyo ngendlela utshintsho olungokwasemthethweni olukhoyo kwinkqubo yorhulumente.

Isiphelo

Ulwalamano phakathi komthetho wesizwe nowesizwe ekukhuseleni amalungelo omntu ngamnye luphawu oluchazayo lolawulo lwamaMelika. Yinkqubo eyenziwe ukuba iphendule kwiimfuno zobulali kunye nemigangatho yesizwe, ikhuthaza uhlaziyo lolunye ngeli lixa isiseko sobulungisa kuwo onke. Umthetho wesibonelelo unika umgangatho olinganayo wamalungelo angenakwaphula umthetho, lo gama umthetho norhulumente unika umgaqo-siseko othe rhoqo unika ugcino olongezelelekileyo lwenkuselo. USupreyy Clausle uqinisekisa umanyano lwesizwe, kodwa uLawulo lweshumi kunye nesakhiwo somGaqo-siseko sigcinelwe ligunya elibalulekileyo kumaphondo, sidala ukudityaniswa okunelisa okulawula okusemthethweni kwelizwe ngalinye. Kubafundi nabaqeqeqeshi, ukuphuhlisa ukuqondwa okunempumelelo kwesi sixhobo sokudlala esinempumelelo sesizwe sesizwe sesizwe sesizwe sesizwe nesebugqeqeqeshina.