Isiseko samandla obuMongameli kumGaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States waseka umongameli onegunya elinamandla, kodwa ngabom wagunyazisa elo gunya kwinkqubo yamagunya ahlukeneyo. Inqaku II loMgaqo-siseko libeka igunya eliphezulu kuMongameli we-United States, emenza umongameli yintloko karhulumente kunye nomphathi-mikhosi wemikhosi exhobileyo. Umongameli umangalelwa ngokuzinyanzelisa ukuba imithetho iphumezwe ngokuthembeka, iqhuba inkqubo yamanye amazwe, kwaye amisele amagosa karhulumente, aphantsi kokungqinela iBharhane. Kodwa abakheli, besawuvukele ngokunzulu umlawuli wemikhosi, babewaqaqaphilele kakhulu amandla olawulo oluphezulu. Bakhela kwimibangoomatshini abadweli bokwakha izakhiwo ezininzi ezicetyiweyo benzelwe ukukhusela naliphi isebe, ingakumbi isigqeqesho, ekulawuleni abanye.

Umbhalo wokuqala weQumrhu II mfutshane ngokuphawulekayo — amagama angaphezu kwewaka nje — ashiya okuninzi ekutolikeni nasekuqhelisweni kwembali. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, igunya lomongameli liye lakhula ngeli thuba landulela, abathunywa bequmrhu, izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo, kunye nezenzo zongxamiseko. Noko ke, uhlolo lwaloo mandla luye lwavela, lunika inkqubo entsonkothileyo yokuziphendulela ehlala ibalulekile kulawulo-demokhrasi lwaseMerika. Ukuqonda ezi zinto asiyosifundo nje kuphela kwibutho labantu kodwa lukhokelo olusebenzayo kubemi abafuna ukukhusela inkululeko yabo.

Isakhelo somGaqo-siseko somsebenzi weeHells nolungelelwano

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela yahlula amandla phakathi kwamasebe amathathu alinganayo: uwiso-mthetho (umongameli), umphathi-mthetho (umongameli), kunye nenkundla (iinkundla zetyala). Isebe ngalinye linamagunya akhethekileyo anokumisela izenzo zezinye. Kumongameli, ii-chendo eziphambili zomgaqo-siseko zivela:

  • [[NT.:0] I-Cempt: ingadibanisa, ilawule uqingqo-mali, iqinisekise okanye yale amadinga, izivumelwano ze-rafy, igqithe i-vetoes, i-ejolise kwaye isuse umongameli, kunye nomphathi wehambo.
  • IJUDI:0 iyakwazi ukuvakalisa izenzo zomongameli ezingavumelaniyo nomthetho ngokuhlola okusesikweni, ukutolika imithetho, nokugcina amagosa aphezulu etyala enkundleni.
  • AmaZwe kunye nabantu: ulawulo lolawulo lugcine amagunya amaninzi koorhulumente belizwe, kwaye unyulo luvumela abemi ukuba bagcine oomongameli benoxanduva.

Ezi zixhobo zokuhlola azikho ngqiqweni — ziye zavavanywa ngokuphindaphindiweyo kwimbali yaseMerika.

IiNkcukacha zoMgaqo-siseko: iBhunga njengeNkxaso yokuqala

Ukwenza Umthetho Namandla Okuthenga

Ingqungquthela ibamba amandla owiso-mthetho, okuthetha ukuba inokuthi imisele imithetho enyanzela, engqalileyo, okanye edalela ukuthatha inyathelo lomongameli. Umzekelo, uSomandla emfazweni sisigqibo sowewaka ka 1973 ifuna umongameli ukuba azise iKhomishini exhobileyo kwisithuba seeyure ezingama-48 zokwenza imfazwe ibe yimfazwe kwaye ibeke umda ukunikezelwa kwayo kwientsuku ezingama-60 ngaphandle kogunyaziso lomkhosi. Ingqungqungquthela isenokusebenzisa amandla esingxowa semali ukunikezela okanye ukukhuthuza izindululo zeziphathimandla. Akukho mongameli urhulumente onokuthi achithe imali ngaphandle kwe-application kwiBhunga, uvavanyo oluye lwasetyenziswa ekuthinteleni ulawulo lomda kwimiqobo olusuka kumgangatho womkhosi womkhosi.

[ Isikolo----. IsiXeko saseNew York[[FLT:] (1975], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa ukuba umongameli akanakukwazi ukukhupha (ukubambelela) imali efanelekileyo ngaphandle kwegunya lomthetho. Oku kuqinisa ubukhulu beBhunga ngaphezu kwemali echithwa ngurhulumente.

Uphando Nolawulo

Iikomiti zeKhonklareyion zinegunya eliphangaleleyo lokuphanda nayiphi na into enxulumene nesebe eliphetheyo. Zingakhupha iipopu ezincinci, zinyanzelisa ubungqina, kwaye zibambe amagosa edelela ukuba ayala ukusebenzisana. Imizekelo ephezulu-profile iquka ukuchotshelwa kwezaphula-mthetho zeWatergate (1973-74), uphengululo lweIran-Contate (1987), kunye neKomiti kaJanuwari 6 iyakwazi ukubhenca iindlebe ezingekho mthethweni, ukubumba uluvo lukawonke-wonke, kwaye ikhokelela kwiinguqulo okanye imigaqo yomthetho.

Icebiso nemvume: Amadinga neengcebiso

Phantsi kweQumrhu II, iCandelo 2, umongameli kufuneka afumane icebiso leNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNtsimbi kunye nemvume yamagosa aphezulu esebe, abagwebi bamagunya aphezulu (kuquka amatyala aPhakamileyo), kunye nee-antram. Ngokufanayo, izivumelwano zifuna iNdlu yeQela yesithathu emibini ukuze ifumaneke. Oku kuthetha ukuba umongameli akanakukwazi ukuzalisa iimfuno ezingundoqo okanye angenelwe izivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe ngaphandle kwentsebenziswano yemithetho. Ukungavumi kweBhunga leBhunga ukuqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu umbi okanye izivumelwano ze-rabhistiwe zinguqu zingunda ephambili kuyo yonke imbali, ezininzi eziye zabonwa ngoku ukulibazisela ukukhutshwa kwesiqinisekiso sabagwebi kunye nokurhoxiswa koMkhosi we-Intermetermeterte-Range Nustmicre ngaphandle komment Actives Trecters ngaphandle kokutshintsha.

IZixhobo zoMgaqo-siseko: UMthetho wePhondo wePhondo kunye noMgaqo-siseko

[[NTL:0] UMthetho weNkqutyana yeQumrhu (1996) uvumela iKhomyutha yokubhukuqa imimiselo yesebe lesizwe phakathi kweentsuku ezingama-60 zowiso-mthetho zolawulo lwayo. Ngelixesha ingakhange ihlole ngqo kumongameli, ithintela amandla alawulayo esebe eliphetheyo. [FLT] i-legastialivetototo [[[FLT:][3] [iiiii-FLT] [iikhulu] lifumana ezinye iindlela ezifunekayo kwimithetho evumela ukuba indlu enye okanye zombini ipropati yempala ephantsi kwemithetho ephantsi kwemithetho ephantsi yempatho ephantsi kwemithetho ethile, ilawula imicimbi ethile phambi kokuba ithathe inyathelo elithile.[FLT:].[[FLD] v [FLT]

IiNkundla zoMgaqo-siseko zinika ingqwalasela:

Amandla Okuphengulula Ngokweejaji

Uhlolo lwezeejaji ligunya leenkundla zesizwe lokuvakalisa izenzo zomongameli, imiyalelo yegunya, kunye nemithetho karhulumente engagunyaziswanga. Eli gunya lamiselwa ku- Marbury v. Madison (1803) kwaye liye lasetyenziswa kwisebe eliphetheyo kwiimeko ezininzi zembali. Xa inkundla iwisa isenzo somongameli, umongameli kufuneka athobele (ngaphandle kokuba isigqibo sibhenqiwe kwaye siphendusiwe). Ijadidicariary ichaza imimiselo, isithintela yabameli abasemaquququzeleli abaphetheyo.

Uphawu lwetyala eliphakamileyo leNkundla elisikelwe umda

  • Ubetho olusezantsi lwephepha & Tube Co. Sawier (1952): Ngexesha lemfazwe yase Korea, uMongameli Truman wayalela ukuphangwa kwezigamlo zentsimbi ukunqanda ukubetha. INkundla ePhakamileyo yalawula umongameli engenamGaqo-siseko okanye igunya lolawulo lokuthatha impahla yabucala, eqinisekisa ukuba umongameli akanakwenza ngaphandle kogunyaziso lombutho kwimicimbi yasekhaya.
  • [FLT] United States v. Nixon [19974]): uMongameli ophetheyo Nixon wabiza ilungelo lokuvala iikhasethi ezirekhodiweyo ezishicilelweyo kuphengululo lwamanzi. INkundla ngaxhatha linye yathi umongameli akangaphezulu kunomthetho kwaye ilungelo eliphetheyo aliphelelanga, elikhokelela ekurhoxisweni kwe-Nixon'.
  • [FLT] Zivotofsky v. Kerry (2015): INkundla ixhase amandla eBhunga okuqaphela iingingqi zangaphandle, ibeka umda wegunya elipheleleyo lomongameli kulwalamano lwamanye amazwe.
  • [FLT]Trump v. Mazars USA, LLP [2020]: INkundla yalwala ngokupheleleyo ukwahlukana kwempikiswano zamandla, ivumela iingqungquthela ezisezantsi zemali zomongameli kodwa iseka uvavanyo lokulinganisa.

Imida Emalunga Neejaji: Imibuzo Ekhoyo Neyopolitiko

Iinkundla azinakuva lonke ucelomngeni kumandla obungameli. Amatyala kufuneka abe nemeko eqinileyo — ukonakala kwekonkrithi ekwakunokufunyanwa kwisenzo somongameli. Ngaphezu koko, imfundiso yezopolitiko yezopolitiko [[FLT:] iinkundla zenkundla zenkundla zetyala ekugqibeni imibandela ewiswe ngokwemigaqo-siseko kumasebe ezobupolitika, efana nokuziphatha kwenkqubo yangaphandle okanye inkqubo engagqibekiyo. Oku kushiya ezinye izenzo zomongameli zingathintelwanga yijaji, yenza ingqungquthela kunye nolawulo lukawonke wonke olubaluleke ngakumbi.

Igalelo: Isicwangciso soMgaqo-siseko oGqityiweyo

Ingcebiso yeyona mithetho-siseko inamandla ephethe: igunya lokususa umongameli ohleliyo eofisini ukwenzela "Isizathu, Isifumbathiso, okanye ezinye ii-Curtles kunye neMisdemeor" (Artle II, Icandelo 4). Indlu yabameli inamandla okungaquququzeli (isigwebo), kwaye iBhunga liqhuba ukuvavanywa nokuvota kwabaninzi abalishumi elinesithathu ukuvalelwa nokususwa.

Inkqubo Yokuzicebisisa

  • IKomiti Yombutho WaseKhaya iphanda amanqaku aqulunqweyo, avotelwa yiNdlu epheleleyo.
  • Ukuba le ndlu ivumela amanqaku athethwa ngabantu abaqhelekileyo, umongameli uyagxekwa (njengetyala).
  • Emva koko iNdlu yeeNkundla ityala, iNkundla Ephakamileyo iphethe iJaji.
  • Ivoti yesithathu esibini yabaququzeleli abakhoyo kufuneka babambe kwaye basuse umongameli.

Imigaqo Engokwembali

Koomongameli abathathu kuphela abacetyiswe yiNdlu: Andrew Johnson (1868, ngokuyaphula uMthetho we-Ofisi), Bill[Clinton [1998], ngenxa yentlawulo kunye nokuthintela okusesikweni), kunye [[FLT]] [[FLTYP]] [[FLTY:5] (209] ngenxa yokusetyenziswa kakubi kwamandla kunye nokuvalwa kweBhungazam; 201 ngenxa yokuqhutyelwa kwe-Bhulu). Akukho nto eyagwetywayo, nangona uJohnson wasinda yivoti enye. [[FLT][FLT][FFFFF][57]

Inkqubo yokungancomeli inzima ngabom, ibonisa umnqweno wabaxhasi bomthetho wokukhusela ukuphangwa. Kodwa isisongelo sokunganyuswa ngokwaso singahlola ukuziphatha komongameli, njengokuba kubonakala xa oomongameli betshintsha indlela yokuphepha ukuphulukana nenkxaso yequmrhu.

Igunya le Veto kunye noMmandla eBhunga

Umongameli angawubeka umthetho odluliswa yiBhunga, enyanzela ukuphinda kuhlolwe amatyala. I-Vitoes ingasoloko ikhona (igosa libuyiselwa kwiKhonkqele lingenazimfuno) okanye ipokotho (umongameli akathathi nyathelo ngeentsuku ezilishumi ngelixa iBhunga lithenjiswa, libulala ityala). IBhunga lingawugqitha umgangatho othe rhoqo ngekota ezimbini-3, kodwa inqabile — malunga ne7% yeevetoes eziqhelekileyo eziye zasetyenziswa ukususela oko i-George Washington.

Ukusayina Intetho Nempikiswano Yayo

Abalawuli ukususela oko uJames Monroe ukhuphe iingxelo zokutyikitya ukuchaza indlela abawuchaza ngayo umthetho. Noko ke, oomongameli bezi mini baye basebenzisa ukuqinisekisa ukuba amalungiselelo athile akagunyaziswanga kwaye isebe eliphetheyo alizukuwanyanzelisa. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba oku kukupheliswa kwenkqubo yeveto, ngokunempumelelo ukuvumela umongameli akhethe imithetho anokuyilandela. Iinkundla azikugqibi ngokupheleleyo ukufaneleka kwamazwi anjalo, zongeza ingxubusho ecacileyo kulo vavanyo.

Uluvo Loluntu, Amajelo Ondaba, Nokuphendula

Oomongameli banyulwa rhoqo emva kweminyaka emine kwaye bangasebenzisa umlinganiselo wemiqathango emibini (kunye noHlaziyo lwama-22). Olu vavanyo lonyulo lolona lungqalileyo lusuka ebantwini. Umongameli ofuna unyulo kwakhona okanye ilifa kufuneka alondoloze imvume kawonke wonke ukuphembelela iBhunga lowiso-mthetho nokuphepha ukoyiswa kwezobupolitika. Uluvo lukawonke wonke lunganyanzela izigqibo zomongameli, ngokukodwa ngexesha lamanqam

Indima Yezixinanisi Ezikhululekileyo

IFirst Amendment iqinisekisa ushicilelo olukhululekileyo, olusebenza njengendawo yokugada kwisebe eliphetheyo. Uphando lobuzwilakhe — ukusuka kwiWatergate ukuya kwiPentagon Papers ukuya kwingxelo yangoku ngemiyalelo yabalawuli — lubhenca ukuxhatshazwa kwezenzo ezingalunganga kunye nokwaziswa kwabavoti. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yasoloko ikhusela ilungelo lomatshini lokupapasha ulwazi olucaluliweyo xa lunika umdla woluntu, njengakwi-New York Times Co. v. United States[71], oluvalelwe ukuving'umva kwiPentagon Papers.

Ukuba Ngummi Noluntu

Izakhono, amaqela abantu abanomdla, kunye nemibutho yolawulo lobungangamsha iphembelela amandla omongameli ngokukhuthaza, ngokufaka impempe, ngamaphulo kawonke-wonke, kunye nokuqhayisa. Umbutho wamalungelo abantu, umbutho ochasene nemfazwe, kunye nombutho wamabhinqa okhuthaza imfazwe, konke kwaphumelela ngokwethutyana ngokucinezela oomongameli kunye neBhunga ukuba bathathe inyathelo. Kule mihla yanamhlanje, unxibelelwano lwezentlalo-ntle luvumela ukuququzelelwa ngokukhawuleza, kodwa kwanenkcazelo ephosakeleyo; abemi abanokuqonda babalulekile ekulondolozeni ityala.

IiNkxaso ezongezelelekileyo: Umanyano, ulawulo lolawulo lwaseburhulumenteni, kunye noLuyalelo olunoLawulo oluPhezulu

Umanyano njengendlela Ethe Tyaba

Amagunya oMgaqo-siseko awawaphathiswanga urhulumente karhulumente. Oku kuthetha ukuba iinkalo ezininzi zobomi bemihla ngemihla — imfundo, ubupolisa, ukusetyenziswa komhlaba, imimiselo yempilo — zihlala ziphantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente. Oomongameli abanako ukuyilawula imithetho yasekuhlaleni ewela kumagunya amapolisa, ngaphandle kwamatyala anqabileyo okukhululwa. Amagqwetha aseburhulumenteni asoloko ecela urhulumente ukuba acel ’ umngeni izenzo zolawulo, njengoko kwenzeka ngokuvalwa kohambo (2017) kunye neDefered Action for Childing Agedals (DACA) aphinda aphendule urhulumente (2017).

Ulawulo loBurhulumente noKhuselo lweNkonzo

Amaziko asebenza ngokumanyeneyo aqesha abasebenzi abasebenza nzima abakhuselwe kwi-politiki ekhuselwe yiPendleton Act (1883) kunye nemithetho elandelayo. Ngeli xesha oomongameli bemisela iinkokeli eziphezulu zomasebe, imigaqo elawula umsebenzi kwaye banokumelana nemiyalelo engekho mthethweni. UMthetho we-Hatch uthintela umsebenzi wezopolitiko ngabasebenzi begunyaziso, ugcina umlinganiselo wobundilele. Ukhuseleko lwe-Whisletrophere lukhuthaza abasebenzi ukuba babhale ukunganyaniseki ngaphandle kokoyika impindezelo.

Imiyalelo yegunya: Isenzo esingagqibekanga esinemida

Abalawuli basoloko besebenzisa imiyalelo yolawulo ukukhokela urhulumente wesizwe ngaphandle komthetho. Noko ke, imiyalelo yabalawuli iphantsi kovavanyo lomthetho, isenokutshintshwa ngoomongameli abalandelayo, kwaye kufuneka ibe nesiseko kwigunya lomgaqo-siseko okanye lomthetho. IBhunga linako ukuphelisa umyalelo wegunya ngokuwubeka umthetho ophikisanayo (owuthobelayo ukuqhuba ngegalelo). Umzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabetha uMongameli uTruman, umyalelo wegunya eliphetheyo wokuphatha izikhongozeli kwi-[FLTLT:0] i-otown , kwaye uMongameli Biden urhoxise iziyalelo ezininzi zolawulo oluphezulu kwiofisi yakhe yokuqala.

Ukupheliswa Kwamandla Omongameli Neengqinipho Ezimandundu

Ulawulo lwangoku lunezinto ezininzi kakhulu kunye negunya kunabaseki ababonwayo, ingakumbi kukhuseleko lwesizwe, ubukrelekrele, kunye nolawulo longxamiseko. ITheory, ingcamango yokuba umongameli ulawule ngokupheleleyo kwisebe eliphetheyo — uqhubelwe phambili ngabanye oomongameli kwaye wacelw'ezwa ngabanye abantu. Ingqungquthela iye yaphendula ngotshintsho olunje ngolu hlobo [[[FLT:]] , [[FLT:]], i-PFLT]General Act [FLT]General Act [FLT] [FFFD]] [5] [10]) kodwa iyavuma ukuba intlawulo lwezikomkhulu le projekthi ivume.[FLT]

Kuvela iimvavanyo ezintsha: imingeni yomgangatho karhulumente, izigqibo zentlalo-ntle zombutho woluntu ukunqumamisa oomongameli, kunye noxinzelelo lwezizwe ngezizwe oluvela kumahlakani. Umthetho we-Electoral Reformation Count [2022])) ucacisa indima yobusekela bomongameli ekugunyaziseni unyulo, ukuvala irhintyela elixhatshazwe emva konyulo lwamashumi amabini amabini.

Isiphelo: Indima yommi Ekulondolozeni Ulungelelwano

Ii-checks kumandla obungameli azizinqumlisi. Zifuna ukubotshwa okusebenzayo kumagosa anyuliweyo, abacholacholi, iintatheli, kunye nabemi abaqhelekileyo. Ukuqonda ezi nkqubo kunika abavoti amandla okufuna ukuphendula kwibhokisi yebhola ekhasi, ukuxhasa umatshini osisidla-phambili, nokuthatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi. Abaxhasi bomGaqo-siseko bayila inkqubo enyanzela ukulwa nephulo, kodwa ixhomekeke kuluntu esinolwazi nesolumkileyo. Njengoko iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yaphawula kwi yeUnited States. Nixon, "Umongameli akayiyo ngaphezu komthetho." Lo mgaqo uhlala umgangatho we-Romatilt wolawulo lwe-ogralist.

Ukufundwa okungakumbi kwemiqathango echanekileyo yezomgaqo-siseko, [[FLT: 0] inika uhlalutyo olugunyazisiweyo lwenqaku II. [ Iprojekthi ye-Oyez [ inika ingxelo yemiba yetyala elingundoqo leNkundla ePhakamileyo equka [[FLT:]] iUnited States v. Nikon[. [Uqwalaselo olubanzi lwembali yembali, [[FTLT:] ingxelo yenkonzo yophando lophando] [[FLT]] [FFLT] ingumba yophatho] ingumphakatho]. [FFLT]