Ukwazisa: Isiseko Sobuhlobo Besityalo Ngomthetho

Inkqubo yomthetho yaseMerika asiyonkqubo ekwanti egcinelwe amagqwetha nabagwebi; sisakhiwo esiphilayo esiphenjelelwa ngummi ngamnye kwaye siphenjelelwa yiso. Ukuthabatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni kuthetha okungaphezulu kunokuthobela nje kuphela imithetho-iquka ukuvota abalawuli abaphumeza imithetho, abasebenza kwiinkundla ezigqiba izibakala, ukuva iinkundla zikawonke-wonke, kwaye kwanocelomngeni lwezenzo zikarhulumente zokuziphikisa ngoluvolo. Amatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo achaza imida kunye namathuba okuthabatha le nxaxheba, kuqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo ihlala isabela yaye ikhusela amalungelo angundoqo. Ngokuhlolisisa ezi zigqibo zize zifumane ukuqonda okucacileyo kwimisebenzi yabo phakathi kwe-judiary nezindlela ezikhoyo zokubhalisa ityala kunye neendlela ezininzi ezisetyenziswayo zoluntu ezisemthethweni zemeko zelizwe.

Ilungelo Lokuthetha Ngenkululeko: Ikhorime Lentetho Yesidlangalala

UHlaziyo Lokuqala luqinisekisa inkululeko yokuthetha, kodwa umlinganiselo opheleleyo wokhuseleko oye wachazwa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo. Ukuthabatha inxaxheba kwingxoxo kawonke-wonke, enoba ngembalelwano, ngentetho yobugcisa, okanye ngokwezibhengezo ezilula, yindlela ephambili yokubandakanyeka kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni neyopolitiko. Amatyala aphawula ukuba oku kuthabatha inxaxheba akupheli kwisango lesikolo okanye kwibhokisi yebhola.

[[UMTL: 0] Isithili se-Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School Community (1 969)

Kwelinye lamatyala akhankanywe kakhulu abafundi, iNkundla yathi abafundi abawashiyi amalungelo abo okuHlaziya kokuqala kwisango lesikolo. Ngonyaka ka-1965, uMary Beth Tinker, umntakwabo John, kunye nomhlobo wakhe babenxibe iintonga ezimnyama esikolweni ukuze baqhankqe imfazwe yaseVietnam. Isithili sesikolo samkela inkqubo ethintela ukuvalwa kwengalo kwaye sabethwa abafundi. INkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho wokuba intetho yomfuziselo ikhuselwe ngaphandle kokuba iphazamisane nemisebenzi yesikolo. Esi sigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba abantu abaselula bangabandakanyeki kwinkqubo esemthethweni, hayi abalawulwa nje negunya. Izikolo azikwazi ukuvala imvume yokunga umlomo wabafundi ngenxa yokungathandi komthetho. [FLT.[FLD:] [FLD]]

Brandenburg v. Ohio (1 969)

Ngoxa umlawuli weqela lezomthetho wabekwa ityala phantsi kwe- intetho yabafundi, Brandenburg walungisa kwakhona imida yezopolitiko. Umlawuli weKlux Klan wabekwa ityala phantsi kwezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho ze-Ohio zolwaphulo-mthetho ngenxa yokwenziwa kwamagqatso okugxeka abantu abamnyama namaYuda. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yajika, yamisa uvavanyo olunamandla lwezigaba ezimbini: inyathelo lokuthetha elingekho mthethweni likhuselwa ngaphandle kokuba (1) lijoliswe ekuvuleni okanye ukuvelisa isenzo esimandukufutshane solwaphulo-mthetho (2) ukukhuthaza okanye ukuvelisa isenzo esinjalo. Oku kumele kuthathe indawo yoloyiko olude, njengoko kuthe kratyaniswa nokuvavanywa ngamandla kwe-orhulumente.

[[UMTL: 0] Texas v. Johnson (1998)

Mhlawumbi akukho meko ingcono ebonisa amandla entetho yokomfuziselo kunokuthi Trexas v. Johnson. Ummangalelwa watshisa iflegi yaseMelika ngexesha lesivumelwano soMbutho weRepublic Community ukuze avuselele iinkqubo zikaMongameli Reagan. INkundla, kwisigqibo esingu 5 764, yabamba ukuba ukutshiswa kweflegi kwakukhuselwe kwiNgqomo Yokuqala. Le sigqibo sabangela ukuba abantu bangqubane kwaye kwafuneka ukuba kulungiswe umgaqo-siseko, kodwa ekugqibeleni saqinisa umgaqo othi urhulumente akanakukwazi ukuphelisa ukuthetha ngenxa yokuba kucaphukisa. Ukuxhasa ngenkqubo esemthethweni maxa lithetha ukukhusela amalungelo abo singavumelani. Le meko ibonisa ukuba isebe lenkundla limele ukuba ligqibelele intetho esezantsi engoninzi ngokuchasene noluntluntluvo.

Ukukhuselwa Ekuphandeni Nokungaqiqiyo: Amalungelo OMphetho wesine Okwenziwa

ISichibiyelo sesine sikhusela abemi ekungeneleni ngomdla korhulumente kubantu babo, kumakhaya, emaphepheni, nakwiziphumo. Ukuthabatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni ngokufuthi kufuna ukwazi ixesha lokugcinwa komthetho okanye ukuphangwa kwempahla, kunye neendlela zokuyinyanga ezikhoyo ukuba loo miqathango iyaphulwa. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yakha umthetho onamandla onika abantu amandla okuvavanya uphando olungekho mthethweni nokubeka amagunya etyala.

Mapp v.Oo (1961) noMthetho weExclussion

Dollree Map yagwetywa ngokuba nezinto ezingcolileyo emva kokuba amapolisa ekhange ikhaya lakhe ngaphandle kwesiqinisekiso esisemthethweni. INkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho ukuba ubungqina obufunyenwe ngokuphulwa kweSine Somthambeko kufuneka bukhutshwe kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho karhulumente. Lo “mthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho” ubusetyenziswa kwiinkundla zikarhulumente kuphela. Ngokuyidlulisela kwiinkundla, yakha isithintelo esinamandla ekupheliseni ukuphengulula okungekho mthethweni. Kubami, oku kuthetha ukuba ukuthatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo esemthethweni kubandakanya ilungelo lokuvavanya ityala amapolisa. Ukuba ubungqina obungemthetho bungagcinwanga, ityala ingawa, iqinisekisa ukuba isigqibo asisayi kuthethelela oko. Isigqibo sihlala siphikisa, kodwa isixhobo esingundoqo sesixhobo sokugweba imigaqo-gqesho.

Terry v.Oo (1968) kunye nomiso-full-Frisk

[[[FT]] Igunya lobungcaphephe] lingaphantsi kwesizathu. [[FF3] [FT:] [5] [FT] [3] limisele ukuba amapolisa angamisa umntu aze afake i-applice izixhobo ukuba ayamthemba umenzi wolwaphulo-mthetho ukuba uphando lukwinyawo kwaye lowo uxhobile. Oku “misa ne-fratulik] igunya lincinane kunesizathu, kodwa likhulu kunesixhobo sobungozi. Umzekelo ukulinganisa umlinganiselo othe ngqo phakathi komntu ngamnye nomthetho owenzelwe ukunyanzelisa i-efa yomntu ngamnye. Ummi othenjiweyo, ukuqonda [ [FLT:] [FLT:] kunzima: ukuba igosamgada, omnye unokubuza ukuba igosa elisengqiqweni, kwaye ukuba i-flayiphaza elingunxakiswe yimeko yezixhobo, enokuphazamisa iziphumo ezithenjiweyo.[5][3][3][3]

Katz v. United States [1967]: Ulindelo olusengqiqweni lwemfihlo

Phambi [FLT], ukhuseleko lweSinyuso sesine lwalubotshelelwe kwimpahla: ukuba umntu umniniyo, wayenelungelo; kungenjalo, babengenalo. UCharles Katz wagwetywa ngokusekelwe kubungqina obukwindawo yocingo ebekwe ngaphandle kwendlu yocingo kawonke-wonke. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ukuba uMphetho-mda weSine ukhusela abantu, hayi iindawo. Uvavanyo lwaba kukuba umntu “ulindele ukuba imfihlolo olufanelekileyo” nto leyo ibonwa yimeko esemthethweni yebutho labantu. Oku kuvula ucango lwezintlukwano ezibandakanya iminxeba yeselula, GPS kulandele imiyalelo, kunye nodweliso lwamanani. Ukuxhasa inkqubo esemthethweni kuthetha ukukhusela i-oklorpyn , ngokubhekisela kubugcisa obuqhelekileyo [FLT]

Ilungelo Lokugwetywa Ngobulungisa: Umgangatho Nokufumana Okusesikweni

Ityala elifanelekileyo liyindawo ephambili yenkqubo yokulungisa. Ngaphandle kwalo, ukuba nenxaxheba kwinkqubo esemthethweni akunantsingiselo. UMthetho-mvume weSithandathu uqinisekisa amalungelo amaninzi akhethekileyo: ukuchotshelwa kwetyala ngokukhawuleza nakuwonke wonke, umgwebi ongakhethi buso, isaziso sokumangalelwa, ilungelo lokuthetha namangqina, kunye noncedo lwesiluleko. Izigqibo zophawu lwamazwe ziqinisekise ukuba la malungelo asebenza kubo bonke, kungakhathaliseki ukuba baphi na ubutyebi okanye isikhundla.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Ilungelo kwiSicelo

Clarence Earl Gideon wabekwa ityala lokuqhekeza igumbi lokuhlala. Akakwazanga ukufikelela igqwetha kwaye wanyanzeleka ukuba azimela. Wagwetywa iminyaka emihlanu entolongweni. Kwiseli-sisele sakhe, wanika isicelo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo, ephikisa ngelithi uMgaqo-siseko ufuna ukuba urhulumente anikezele igqwetha labamangalelwa abangenamthetho. [FFF:] Avumelane [[FFF:] ukubhukuqa [FF:] [3] umele omnye wemiba emininzi yabemi baseMerika. [[FLT:] [192])] Ibandakanya ngokuthe ngqo iqhinga elingu libandakanya nokunikwa kwecebo lokulungisa ityala elingeyo. Ngokufunyanise ityala (inkulu) ngenxa yokuba inkundla isebenza kumthetho woluntu (FFFFFFFFode).[4] ngenxa yoko kusebenza kumthetho woluntu oluqhelekileyo.[Fonke]

Brady v. Maryland (1963) kunye namalungelo okuDlulisela

Amalungelo amatyala afanelekileyo aquka ukufikelela kubungqina. Brady v. Maryland, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi abatshutshisi kufuneka batyhile ubungqina bezinto eziphathekayo kukhuselo. Ukuba abatshutshisi babucinezela ubungqina obuvumela ummangalelwa, ukunyanzeliswa kungapheliswa. Oku “kulawula kweBrady” kuvavanywa ngamandla omtshutshisi. Ingingqi esebenzayo esebenza kwimijaji okanye njengabahloli ingenelwayo imicimbi efuna ukukhanya; amagqwetha nabameli bangasebenzisa [[[FLT:] Brady] ukuqinisekisa ukuba abakhonjiweyo bafumana ulawulo olupheleleyo namathuba afanelekileyo okuyamkela imeko yabo.

[[UMTL: 0] Duncan v. Louisiana[[FL:1] (1968): Ilungelo kwi Jury Jury Trial Trial

Phantse zonke izigebengu zinelungelo lokuchophela ityala ukuba isohlwayo esinokwenzeka singaphaya kweenyanga ezintandathu zokuvalelwa. Duncan v. Louisiana yaquka ukuvavanywa kwetyala leSithandathu soLawulo loMphengululo nxamnye namaphondo. Oku kuthetha ukuba ukuba ukuba inxaxheba kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni ayipheleli kumagqwetha nabamangalelwa----avane-----------------bammeli abasebenzi basebenza njengemi bomthetho abasebenzi abasebenza njengejajizekileyo kwaye bagqibele ukuba netyala. Inkonzo yeJury yenye yeentlobo ezithe ngqo zemali ezibotshelelwanoburhulumente. [FLT]] I-Duncan iqinisekisa ukuba oku kungenamthethwe ngumthetho. Ityala eligunyaziso lokufuna ityala kunokuba ligwetywe ngumgwebi, ugcina urhulumente.

Ukuba Nenxaxheba Kwinkqubo Yasemthethweni Namhlanje: Ngaphaya Kwenkundla

Amatyala abonisa ukuba angaphandle anelungelo elipheleleyo, kodwa ukuba nenxaxheba mihla le kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni kwenzeka ngamathuba amaninzi. Ukuqonda la matyala kunika abantu amandla okusebenzisa amalungelo abo ngokunempumelelo nangenkathalo.

Ukubonelela nokuzibandakanya nomthetho

Imithetho iveliswa ngabameli abanyuliweyo, kwaye ukuvota yindlela ephambili abemi abaphembelela ngayo isakhiwo somthetho. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yathetha ngokuphindaphindiweyo ngamalungelo okuvota, ukusuka ku Reynolds v. Sims (1964]) imisela “umntu omnye, ivoti enye” [ku-] Shelby County v. Ikhomfor [2013]) ukubetha imigaqo engundoqo ye-Vot Act. Ngovota, abemi bathatha inxaxheba kukhetho lomthetho, abagwebi (kwiminye imimiselo), kunye namagqwethawe. Inkqubo esemthethweni ayiko ngokona okumiswayo kodwa okungangeyo ngoko kumiselwe yimimiselo.

Inkonzo YaseJury: Umsebenzi Wemmi

Njengoko kuphawuliwe, abachopheli-tyala sisixhobo esingqalileyo sokuthabatha inxaxheba kubemi. Ukusebenza kwinkundla yabachopheli-tyala kunika abantu abaqhelekileyo amandla okuchaza izibakala nokusebenzisa umthetho phantsi kwemiyalelo yomgwebi. Ityala le-Duncan liqinisekisa ukuba lilungile. Iinkundla zixhomekeke kubemi ukuwenza lo msebenzi, nabo basebenza befumana ulwazi ngenkqubo yokulawula. Ukungaphumeleli kwenkonzo yejaji lijongela phantsi komsebenzi wobugciphene.

Amagqabaza Kawonke - wonke, Iiprojekthi, NeMiba emfutshane

Phambi kokuba amasebe olawulo anikezele imimiselo, ngokufuthi ayamkela amagqabaza kawonke-wonke. Abahlali bangabumba imekobume, impilo, kunye nemithetho yokhuseleko ngokuthobela amagqabaza aqikelelwa kakuhle. Iziphumo kunye nemiboniso, ekhuselwe Tinder kunye Brandenburg [, impembelelo kumbono kawonke wonke [iimeko ephakamileyo] [i-FLT]] [indlela], ikhokelele utshintsho lomthetho-siseko. Olunye uhlobo olukhethekileyo lokuthabatha inxaxheba luyi-actus curece (“icerie yenkundla”) mifutshane. Ngexa igalelo eliqhelekileyo, abantu ngabanye abanolwazi olukhethekileyo okanye umdla onamandla kwimeko yeNkundla ephakamileyo inokuthe krawudia ngokufutshane. Oku kuvumela abantu abaqhelekileyo ukuba bathelene kwimo engongongongongongongongongongongongongongongongomthetho.

Impembelelo yokukhuthaza nokufundisa uluntu ngokusemthethweni

Abanye abemi banenxaxheba ngokuzisa ityala elicelw'aawenziyo imithetho okanye imisebenzi. Iimeko ezixutyushwa apha Gideon, [, [[FLT:], [[FLT]]][[4]] Katz [[[FLT:][5]] [iiiiiiimeko ezixutyiweyo]] ziqala xa abantu belalile ukwamkela uphazamiso lukarhulumente. I-ligonolll idla ngokufuna ukulungelelaniswa kwamalungelo abantu njenge ACLUU okanye iNaACPU, kodwa ihlala iyifomu enamandla yokuthatha inxaxheba. Imfundo esemthethweni yenye indlela yolwazi olusemthethweni, xa abeminye iqonda amalungelo abo, badla ngokungqinela ngakumbi. [FT][5][5] Icandelo lolwazi lomthetho olusemthethweni luye olusemthethweni, ibonelela nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi

Isiphelo: Ilifa Eliphilayo Lemiba Ephawulwe Ngelizwe

Ukuthabatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo esemthethweni kunelungelo kunye nembopheleleko. Amatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo enza okungaphezulu kunokulungisa iimpikiswano---ifundisa uhlanga ngamaxabiso alo. [[FLT: 0]] Thumela ufundisa ukuba inkalipho yokuchasana ikhuselekile; [ [[FLT]] ifundisa ukuba urhulumente umele ahlonele imfihlo; [[FLT:]] Gedeon[ ufundisa ukuba okusesikweni akunakuxhomekeka kwingcelo. Izigqibo zihlala zifanelekile kuba abemi bayaqhubeka bethetha ngazo kwimo entsha. Ukuba ngaba ngabavoti, abachopheli-mthetho, okanye abamangali, bonke abantu abamangali, banokuthelelwa. Inkundla ephakamileyo yeNkuhla nemeko yezo, i-RGtetlethi yeNkuption, ingubonke, ingumali esetyenziswa ngumthetho yemithetho yemithetho esetyenziswayo, kunye nenga.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kwetyala lencopho yembali nendlela yokudibana nejaji, jongana noovimba becala kwi yenxuwa elisemthethweni leNkundla ePhakamileyo , i-SCOUSBLg[ ukwenzela uhlalutyo lwangoku, kunye namaqela e-advocacy ajongene nemfundo esemthethweni. Khumbula: umthetho ngowabantu, kwaye ukuthatha inxaxheba kuwenza uhlale uphila.