Yintoni Ingcamango Yantlandlolo?

Ukwenziwa komgaqo-siseko yingcamango yokuguqulelwa komgaqo-siseko efuna ukunikezela ngegunya elisibophelelayo kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko njengoko kwakuqondwa ekuqaleni ngabo babewubhalisa baze bawugunyazise. Isiseko esingundoqo sisithi intsingiselo yokubhaliweyo komGaqo-siseko imiswe ngexesha lokumiselwa kwenkqubo kwaye ayifanele itshintshe ukubuyiselwa okusemthethweni. Abaxhasi, kuquka iJaji Antonin Scalia kunye neJaji yangoku uClarence Thomas, baphikisa ngelithi ubuGaqaqaba bunika isityalo esicacileyo, esizinzileyo, kunye nesesiseko esisemthethweni sokwenza isigqibo somthetho, sithintele abagwebi ekufakeni izikhethelo zabo zomthetho ezikhethiweyo kumthetho.

Abahlalutyi bathi ubuNqanam obudala bungaqina kakhulu, bungatshixa ukuqonda okuphelelwe lixesha kunye nenkqubela-phambili yentlalo. Baphawula ukuba abafaki-freyim ngokwabo abavumelani kwiimbambano ezininzi kwaye ukuqonda "intsingiselo yokuqala" kusoloko kunzima okanye kungenakwenzeka. Ngaphezu koko, ukusetyenziswa kobuBhosambuku kwiingxaki zanamhlanje , njengokuzimela ngokwamanani, ubugcisa bokuzala obuhambele phambili, okanye ukuqiqa okunye okungavumelaniyo nokunokunwenwabisa ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni okungenakuqondwa. Ezi ngxaki zidla ngokuba zinkulu ngakumbi xa ziqwalasela amalungelo amabhinqa, azimeleyo ngokwezo ezisemthethweni ziguquke ngokuphawulekayo ukususela kwixesha eliFunye.

Amalungelo Amabhinqa NomGaqo-siseko

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., njengoko wagunyaziswa ngo-1788, awuzange uqukelele ncam amalungelo amabhinqa. Umthetho wamabhinqa ngelo xesha wawulawulwa kakhulu yimfundiso eqhelekileyo yomthetho yokufihla, apho ukuma komfazi ngokusemthethweni kwabekwa phantsi ngumyeni wakhe. Abafazi babengenakuvota, babengenako ukuphatha urhulumente, bakhonze kwiijaji, okanye izinto zabo ezisegameni lawo kumazwe amaninzi. Ummiselo wangaphambili wawungamandla afana nawo onke (Adticle IV) kunye nesiqinisekiso sobume bukarhulumente (Article IV, icandelo 4) ungenako ukuqondwa ukukhusela amabhinqa athabatha inxaxheba kubomi boluntu.

Kwakusemva kwemfazwe yamakhaya nokungaqiniseki komthetho olinganayo. Nangona umgaqo-siseko wawuzimisele ukukhusela amalungelo abantu base-Afrika, igama elithi "person" lisisigxina. Ngaphezu kwenkulungwane elandelayo, iNkundla Ephakamileyo icela ukhuseleko olulinganayo luka Claus ukuba ibethelele imithetho ejongeneyo. [FLT:][2][3] [5]

IsiHlalisi-Mpanzi se-Nineteth (20) ngokucacileyo siqinisekisa amabhinqa ilungelo lokuvota, kodwa asizange sichaze iindlela ezibanzi zokungalingani ngokwezomthetho. Amalungelo eSindululo [ [IERA], enokuthi inikeze umgaqo-siseko ocacileyo wobufana, wanconyelwa ngo1972 kodwa ekugqibeleni wasilela ukufikelela ekufumaneni ulwandiliseni ngamanani afunekayo. Oku kushiye uKhuselo olulinganayo luka Claus njengesithuthi esingundoqo sokukhusela amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, ukwenza indlela yokutolika komntu oqhelekileyo okanye yokuphila komgaqo-siseko.

Ukuzalwa Kwabantu Bemvelo Namalungelo Ohlanga: Ukungaxinezeleki Nokungabikho Kwawo

Izixhobo zokuxhasa ifreyim neshumi elinesibhozo

Phantsi kwendlela engqongqo yobunzululwazi, umGaqo-siseko utolikwa ngokwentsingiselo yantlandlolo yombhalo wawo. Ngexesha lokuTsinjwa, abafazi babethathwa njengabangaphantsi ngokusemthethweni kumadoda ngokweenkalo ezininzi. Abalamli abazange bajonge amabhinqa njenganenxaxheba ezobupolitika; ngenene, ukusetyenziswa "ye" kunye "him" kuwo wonke umGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo wawubonakalisa intelekelelo yokuba ubomi babantu buyindoda kuphela. Kubantu bokuqala, le mibandela yembali: intsingiselo yemithetho ayinwebi ngenxa yokuba amaxabiso abantu atshintshi.

Bambi abaxhasi bembali zamandulo, njengoJaji Scalia, bathi i-Actal Protection Claus yaqondwa njengeyona nto ithintela ucalucalulo oluninzi ngokwesini. Ngokwembono yakhe, uClaus wayexhalabele kakhulu ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kumadoda abantsundu, kwaye naluphi na ulwandiso kumabhinqa lwalufuna utshintsho lomgaqo-siseko /hhayi ukubuyiselwa kwakhona kwemithetho elawula amabhinqa ngokwahlukileyo kumadoda. Oku kubonisa ukuba imithetho ephatha amabhinqa ngokwahlukileyo kumadoda ingumGaqo-siseko ngaphandle kokuba ingenangqiqo ngokupheleleyo, umgaqo-siseko ovumela uninzi wemithetho yokuqeshwa kolwaphulo-mthetho owawuqhelekile phambi kowe-1970.

Ubhalo lwamanani olubanzi nentsingiselo ye "Inkonzo"

Asingabo bonke abakholelwa kulawulo lokuqala abamkela imbono encinane. Abanye abaphengululi, abanjenge John O. McGinnis kunye Michael B. Rappport, baxhasa "iindlela zokuqala zobuGawula," ezijonge kwimithetho echazayo abakhephi bodwa. Ngaphantsi kwale ndlela, igama elithi "person" kwi 14nethi Amend Amend system inentsingiselo epheleleyo equka bonke abantu, kungakhathaliseki ukuba banesini esinjani na. Ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni "ukukhusela" kusenokuphinda kube nokuninzi kunoJastil Scial. Umzekelo, ifomu ye-Genedimetic besazi ukuba eminye imithetho echazileyo ibekwe ngokuchasayo, imigaqo echasanayo nemithetho esetyenziswa ngokuchasanayo, abaxhasi bemithetho engomthetho engomthetho abachasayo.

Ngokubhekele phaya, ukuqiqa kokuqala kungasetyenziswa kwinqanaba le ulwahlulo olusekelwe ku-extensix [ ngokubhekisa kwintsingiselo ecacileyo yombhalo. I-Fencial Protection Claus iyalela ukuba ingakhanyela "ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho." Ukuba umthetho ubekwa kwisiseko sesondo, umbhali wakuqala angabuza ukuba ulwahlulo lwaqondwa ngokwembali ukuba lukwinqanaba lomthetho ovunyelweyo. Nokuba ngaba abaxhasi bamkela imithetho emininzi esekelwe kwisini, basenokuqonda ukuba ezinye izigaba (umz., ezo zisekelwe kuhlanga) ziyakrokrala ngoku. Umbuzo unokuba intsingiselo yasekuqaleni ingaba ingaba iyakwazi ukuqwalasela ngokusukcalulo oluphakathi olusetyenziswayo kwi-calulo.[5] okanye ukuba ngaba ifuna ukutshintsha okuthe kokugqibela.

Ityala Elinophawu Nengqiqo Yamandulo

[[UMTLL:0] Ebuyiselweyo v. IRed[[FTL] [1] (1971] kunye nesiqalo seGeneder Eformation

[[NTLT:0] Eceliweyo v. Reed, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho weIdaho owanika amadoda ukhetho oluzenzekelayo kumabhinqa ekulawuleni imimandla. Ukubhalela iNkundla edibeneyo, iSikhulu seJaji uWarren Burger sathi umthetho waphula umthetho olinganayo wokuKhusela u-Claus' kuba wawungu "onqanda" yaye wawunganxulumenengangqubananga kakhulu nayo nayiphi na inzala yombuso esemthethweni. Inkundla ayizange yamkelanga ngqongqo okanye naluphi na uvavanyo olukhethekileyo lwesondo; yasuka yasebenzisa isiseko esifanelekileyo yaza yafumana ukuba i-edenti. Abaguquleli banokusifumana esi siphumo: umthetho owenziwe ngaphandle kwesizathu esilungileyo, nentsingiselo yokuqala ye "umlinganiselo" ukukhuselwa ngokufanelekileyo" ngoko, [FTB] [2] i-ectrect: [ft transtys transformationss forfied

Craig v. Boren (1976) kunye ne Intermediate Scrutiny

Craig v. Boren, iNkundla yasungula uhlolo oluphakathi lolwahlulo olusekelwe kwisondo, ifuna ukuba bakhonze "iimfuno zikarhulumente ezibalulekileyo" kwaye "ezinxulumene" kwezo njongo. Olu vavanyo lufuna okuninzi kunesiseko esiqikeleleyo kodwa esinemiqathango encinci kunovavanyo olungqongqo. UJaji William Brennan, ebhala ngenxa yoninzi, akazange asekele sigqibo kwingqiqo yokuqala; endaweni yoko, uxhomekeke kwisivumelwano esikhulayo ngokuchasene nocalucalulo lwesini kunye nokuqonda okulinganayo kweNkundla.

Abahlalutyi boqobo baphikisa ngelithi iCraig yayingunovelwano wezomthetho ongekho siseko kwintsingiselo yokuqala ye-145th Amendment. IJaji Rehnqust yaphikisa, inyanzelisa ukuba iziHlayishi zoMthambeko zazingazimisele ukunyanzelisa uhlolo oluphezulu lwezintlukwano zesini. Ukuba ubuBhodi bebusetyenziswa ngokungqongqo, imithetho emininzi esekelwe kwi-safana nesesafana, enje leyo ibekela amadoda imisebenzi ethile okanye ilinganisela imfuno yamabhinqa, `igobe ngumGaqo-mfa, kwanokuba zibonakala zingeyobulungisa namhlanje. Oku kuvavanya ucelomngeni olungundoqo lobuhlanga lujongenananolwano olukhoyo.

United States v. Virginia (1996) kunye noMba weVMI

Isigqibo esibaluleke kakhulu sakutshanje sokulingana kwendoda nendoda ngokwesini silo . [FLT] United States v. Virginia , apho iNkundla yayisithi iNkundla yamadoda amkele umgaqo wokwaphula umthetho woKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Celal Claus. UJaji Ruth Bader Ginsburg, ebhalela uninzi, isebenzisa uhlobo lokuhlola oluphakathi olufuna "uthethelela ngokulula" ukuyekelela ngokwesini. Inkundla yakwala impikiswano zikaVirginia ezithi i-teksko-te mfundo inike umahluko-yodwa. Inkundla yezemfundo iguqule iVMI'smeeved's modelovery.

Ubuqaqoba bunika inkxaso encinane kwisiphumo VMI. Ngexesha lokuHlaziya kweshumi elinesine, izikolo zomkhosi ezixhaswayo zivulelwe amadoda kuphela, kwaye akukho namnye ocinga ukuba u-Claus olinganayo uKhuselo olufunekayo ngenye indlela. Ijaji yantlandlolo isenokuba iye yaxhasa inkqubo ye-VMI, ikhomba ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni ukuba ukwahluka ngokwesini okusekelwe kwimfundo kwakuvumelekile. Kodwa iNkuNkundla yawisa umthetho 7-1 echaza ukuba ucalucalulo olunjalo ngoku lungaqondakaliyo. Isigqibo sibonakalisa indlela ephilayo yomgaqo-siseko etshintsha indlela yokutshintsha umGaqo-siseko.

Ucelomngeni LobuGqaba Lwale Mihla: Intsingiselo "Yentsingiselo Yokwemvelo" YoMthetho wokuHlayishwa Kweshumi Eline

Abanye abaphengululi boqobo baphikisa ngelithi intsingiselo yokuqala yeSihlaziyo seshumi elinesine ixhasa ukhuseleko olomeleleyo kumgangatho olinganayo kunalowo ucingelwayo. Umzekelo, Professistem Steven G. Calabrasi iphikisa ukuba intsingiselo yantlandlolo yasekuhlaleni "iiimvume okanye ukhuseleko" kwiSinyusi seshumi Elinayisine siquka amalungelo ahlukeneyo omthetho axhaswe ngamabhinqa, njengamalungelo okuwawo impahla nawokuvumelana. Kulo mbono, amalungelo okanye i-Immuniclassian Classias eKhuselo oluqhelekileyo lwendawo ekhuselwe amalungelo amabhinqa. Noko ke, iNkundla yeNkundla iyakula lento efuna ukukhuselwa ngokulinganayo, ukugcina ukukhuselwa kokhuseleko.

Omnye umgca wengxoxo yokuqala ugxininisa kwintsingiselo yokuqala ye "ikhuselo olulinganayo" ngokwayo. Ababhali-mbali baye babonisa ukuba abalayishi be-Grameth Demendment babephenjelelwe ngumthetho we-Civil Rights ka-1866, oqinisekisa ukuba bonke abantu banelungelo elifanayo ukwenza izivumelwano kunye nefako njengempahla njengabemi abamhlophe. Ngokuquka ulwimi olungavumeli "umthetho okanye isiko" oluya kuvala la malungelo, uLawulo lusenokuba lucetyiswe ukuphelisa ucalulo olungekho semthethweni kulo naliphi iqela, kuquka namabhinqa. Ngexa olu toliko lukhuphiswa, lucebisa ukuba ubuGcisa bokuqala bungafuneki ukuba butshaba kumalungelo amabhinqa.

Iimbambano Ezikhoyo Phakathi Kwabaphengululi

Ingaba ukwenziwa kwamabhinqa ngokusuka kumntu wangaphambili akunakunqandwa?

Abaphengululi abaninzi abalwela amalungelo abafazi baphikisa ngelithi ubuGaqo-siseko buchasene ngokusisiseko nokulingana kwesini. Catharine MacKinnon kunye noMartal Nussbaum [ buphikisa ubuConstitu] ukuba umGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo wawububudityani phakathi kwamadoda amhlophe ayewakhupha ngokucacileyo amabhinqa namanye amaqela. Ukuzama ukulingana kwamabhinqa kulo xwebhu, bathi, kusisicacisi esingenakuze silungise ngokupheleleyo ukubekwa okubhaliweyo okubhaliweyo okubhaliweyo. Kubazo, kuphela umGaqo-siseko ophilayo ufikela kwindlela entsha yokwamGaqo-siseko.

Abanye abaphengululi bathatha imbono egqwethekileyo. Kimberlé Crenshaw baphikisa ngelithi uhlalutyo lokudibana kwemida lutyhila indlela isiqalo esiwakhusela nokuwaphazamisa ngayo amabhinqa, kuxhomekeka kumongo. Umzekelo, ubuBhongi bungasetyenziswa ukuphelisa iinkqubo zokulwa ucalucalulo olungokwembali, kumhlaba apho umgangatho kaNote Claus waqondwa ekuqaleni ukuthintela ucaciole ulwamcalulo lwesizwe kunye nemilinganiselo ecacileyo yesini ngokupheleleyo. Kwangaxesha elinye, uBhunga loqobo lungamisela imiqathango efana nemithetho echasene nomthetho echasene noMantokazi, eyakhelwayo ngokwenxalenye kumazwe .[FLT]

Ngaba Ukuzalwa Kwabantwana Besini Kunokuvumelana Neengxaki Zanamhlanje?

Ezinye iingcali zoqobo zicebisa "utoliko oluqhelekileyo lomthetho-siseko" ukufikelela, oludibanisa intsingiselo yokuqala notshintsho lolwandiso. Justice Stephen Breyer, nangona engeyoyo eyeyoyo eyeyoqobo, ibiza indlela yokuchaza intsingiselo ye-practive eqwalasela iziphumo. Okwangoku, ababhali bokuqala abafana [[FLT:]] Barnett baphikisa ukuba intsingiselo yokuqala yeMithetho-siseko ikhusela onke amalungelo endalo, kuquka ilungelo lamabhinqa lokukhululeka kwi-calucalulo olusekelwe kumo oluqhelekileyo. Ngokuqhelekileyo iBarnet's "intsingiselo yokuqala" yokufunda i-141 enokwenzeka ifuna ukuba iinkundla ezingqongqo zokulungele ukudibanisa imilinganiselo yesondo, umzekelo othe kokugqibela kunalo olusetyenziswayo. Oku kukubonisa ngokufanelekileyo; ukungokuba kuxhomekeke kwiziphumo ezicacileyo ezisekelwe kubungqina obuqhelekileyo.

Indima Yokuqhatha Nokukhanyisa

Kwanaphakathi kwabagwebi abaphambili, kukho impikiswano ngobunzima besiqalo. IJaji uScalia yayikulungele ukubhukuqa izigqibo zangaphambili awayekholelwa ukuba zagqitywa ngokuphosakeleyo, kuquka Roe v. Wade kunye [[FLT:]] ne[FLT]] i-[FLT]parentious - v. IJaji yokuqala [umthetho] [uMqulu-"] [uMqulu-andla]] [uMquluko] [uMqulu- luyelo] [umthetho]] [uqulu]]. Abagwebi bokuqala [umthetho] [uqikelelo] [ucalulo] olukhoyo] (uqikelelo oluthe ngqo olukhoyo). [FLT] ngokuchasene nomthetho womthetho womthetho wobuhlanga oluqhelekileyo] [brentshiwe , ingu-Foctivectivess wid widism.

Isiphelo

UbuGaqo-siseko buhlala bunamandla ekutolikeni komgaqo-siseko, kwaye ulwalamano lwawo namalungelo amabhinqa lunzima. UmGaqo-siseko wantlandlolo awuzange ukhusele ngokucacileyo ukulingana kwamabhinqa, kodwa ulwimi olubanzi lwe 144 lokuLandliselwa kwenqanawa "person" kunye "nokwalingana" lungachazwa ngeendlela zokuxhasa ugwebo lwesini---mfono-mfono-mfono. Iimeko zokugweba ezisuka kunyakatho lwesondo [[FLT: 0]. UReed ku- United States v. Virginia zibonisa ukuba iNkundlaluko ephakamileyo yamkele umGaqo-siseko ophilayo ukufikelela kwi-calulo-calulo-calu , isebenzisa ukuhlola okokuba abagxekiswe ngokuba ngabanelo olungenasihloko.

Kodwa ubuGawulayo bokuqala asibubo obunobuGaqo-siseko obusuka kudala. Abanye abaphengululi nabagwebi abaququzeleli bakholelwa ukuba intsingiselo yokuqala yomGaqo-siseko, eqondwa kakuhle, ithintela ucalucalulo lwesondo, ide ifune umlinganiselo ongqongqo wokuzihlola. Abanye bayavuma ukuba uluvo lwantlandlolo luvumela iindima ezisekelwe kwisondo ngaphandle kokuba ikhutshiwe ngokucacileyo. Ingxoxo eqhubekayo ibonisa ukuba ukucaciswa komgaqo-siseko akuyondlela yobuchule yokusebenza kuphela, ibonakalisa ubuchule obunzulu bokwenza idemokhrasi, ukulingana, kwaye indima yejiko yamabhinqa iyaqhubeka iguquka ngeligilebhu, umthetho, nokutshintsha koluntu, umbuzo wendlela yokufunda umGaqo-siseko oza kuhlala kusembindingqi. Ukuba ubuGenebhakal-mgamgamtheli benye ubufana nokuba ngaba imele imele ichazwe ngezinye iindlela zomgaqo-mthetho-ogqhinga.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya, bona iCornell Incape yolwazi lomthetho wesicwangciso esilinganayo [, iNxulumano yeMelika Bar system system symbol ye-elinganayo kunye notoliko lomgaqo-siseko , kunye noluvo lweNkundla yeQumrhu elikwi- United States v. Virginia]