Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya akungomgaqo nje ongabonakaliyo kwiincwadi zoluntu, `yiplani esebenzayo ethintela urhulumente wase-United States ukuba angaziniki kwimithetho ezenzekelayo. Ngokusasaza igunya phakathi kwamasebe amathathu alinganayo, umGaqo-siseko wenza impembelelo apho isebe ngalinye lihlola iimfuno zamanye. Esi sakhiwo sikhusela ngokuthe ngqo amalungelo ommi ngamnye, siqinisekisa ukuba akukho ndawo iphela ekwaziyo ukubhala, ukunyanzelisa, nokutolika imithetho ngendlela ezenzekelayo. Ukuqonda indlela le nkqubo esebenza ngayo, ukusuka kwiingcambumbu zayo zembali ukuya kwiingxaki zayo zale mihla, kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuphumelela kwedemokhrasi yaseMelika.

Amasebe Amathathu Anenkcukacha

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. wahlula urhulumente wesizwe ube ngamasebe amathathu ahlukeneyo: ulwahlulo loMthetho (uMphathiswa noMphathiswa wesizwe), kunye neJaji (iinkundla zesizwe). Isebe ngalinye linamagunya nembopheleleko zalo ezicaluliweyo, iplani ecetyiweyo yokwakha urhulumente wemithetho, kungekhona yabantu. Oku kwahlulwa kuqiniswa sisibakala sokuba ubuchule bokukhetha isebe ngalinye lihluka/* (Conferfer), uMongameli unyulwa ngqo ngabantu, uMongameli unyulwa ngeKholeji ye-Eleji ye-Electoral, kwaye abagwebi borhulumente bagwetyelwa ngokusemthethweni ngobomi obulishumi.

Isebe Elimisela Umthetho: Umenzi Womthetho

Inqaku I leMigaqo-siseko lifaka onke amagunya owiso-mthetho kwiBhunga leMigaqo-siseko, eliyiNdlu yeNdlu yeeNtlanga neNdlu yabameli. Indlu, enamalungu angama-435 ahlulwe ngabantu, yenzelwe ukuba ibe kufuphi nabantu, enamagama aneminyaka emibini aqinisekisa ukuphendula rhoqo. IBhunga, enamalungu amabini (kwisizwe ngasinye), yayinenjongo yokuba libe liqumrhu elithe kratya ngakumbi, elinemiqathango emithandathu yeminyaka kunye nendima egunyaziweyo kumaqela omongameli kunye namagunya.

Uxanduva olungundoqo lweBhunga lukukwenza umthetho, kodwa amandla ayo adwelisweyo adlulela ngaphaya kwemithetho emiselwe. Icandelo le-levy, linemali, lilawula irhafu yerhafu yelizwe neyorhwebo yangaphandle, livakalisa imfazwe, liphakamisa lixhase, linike imikhosi, limisele iinkundla zelizwe ezingaphantsi kweNkundla ePhakamileyo. I-Linity and Theift Clausement (INsungulo I, Icandelo 8, iCandelo lika-Claus 18) linika iNgqungquthela yokumisela imithetho “eyimfuneko nefanelekileyo" yokusebenzisa amandla ayo adweliswe ngokunjalo , . Ngokubhekele phandle, iBhunga lolawulo olubalulekileyo kwisebe eliphetheyo, kuquka igunya lokuhlola, amaxwebhu kunye namangqina olawulo lwezwe-orhulumente.

Isebe Elilawulayo: IFomurder

Inqaku II limisa iSebe elinoLawulo oluPhezulu, elikhokelwa nguMongameli waseUnited States. UMongameli uyintloko yorhulumente kunye nentloko karhulumente, usebenza njengoMthetheli-omphathi-oyintloko wemikhosi exhobileyo, umphathi-mikhosi othetha ngezivumelwano (olawulwa yiNdlu yeNdlu yeNtlanganiso), kunye nomphathi-mthetho karhulumente. UMongameli ukwanamandla okuxolela, amisele amagosa asekuhlaleni (kuquka abagwebi noonobhala-mabhalane, kunye noqinisekiso lweBhabhinethi), kunye nemiyalelo yegunya elikhokelayo eyalathisa ukusebenza korhulumente worhulumente worhulumente.

Isebe elilawulayo liquka amasebe alawulayo ali-15 (njengeBhunga, uKhuselo, uBululamiso, kunye nemfundo) kunye namakhulu amasebe azimeleyo kunye noothunywa. La mazwe asebenzisa kwaye asebenzisa imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga, ephantsi kolwalathiso loMongameli. Ekuhambeni kwexesha, ubukhulu nobungakanani besebe eliphetheyo buye banda ngokuphawulekayo, buphakamisa imibuzo eqhubekayo ngokulungelelaniswa kolawulo. UMongameli unyulwa rhoqo kwiminyaka emine, kwaye ukususela kwiSinyulo esingamashumi amabini anesine, akukho mntu unokunyulwa eofisini ngaphezu kwezihlandlo ezibini.

Isebe Eligwebayo: Intsingiselo

Inqaku III lenza icandelo lejaji lesizwe, neNkundla ePhakamileyo njengenkundla ePhakamileyo neneenkundla eziphantsi njengeeNkundla zeSizwe zingaseka. Abagwebi boMasipala bamiselwe ubomi, phantsi kwesimilo esihle, esibakhusela kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika. Umsebenzi oyintloko wesebe lejaji kukuchaza imithetho kunye nomGaqo-siseko, ukuyisebenzisa kwityala ngalinye kunye neempikiswano. Elona sixhobo sinamandla kwiinkundla zesizwe kukuhlola okugweba ikomiti yephondo okanye igunya lokuvakalisa umthetho okanye isenzo solawulo oluphezulu. Eli gunya laqinisekiswa okokuqala yiNkundla ePhakamileyo .[1810].[FLT] [18] [183], umcimbiswano obalulekileyo yindima yesebe le-judiary judia.[5]

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo yephondo ingumlawuli: iiNkundla zeSithili (iinkundla zamatyala) zisingatha amatyala amaninzi karhulumente; iiNkundla zeeNkundla zezibheno (iinkundla zeSibheno) ziva izibheno ezivela kwiinkundla zesithili; kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo yenza uhlolo olucacileyo kwizibheno, ngokuqhelekileyo ikhetha amatyala aphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo engokomGaqo-siseko okanye yezorhulumente. Ngenxa yokuba abagwebi bephondo banokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye kwanaxa ezo zigqibo zingathandwayo okanye ziinkokeli zezobupolitika.

Inkqubo yeepeyinti nolungelelwano

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya bekungayi kuba nantsingiselo ngaphandle kwendlela yokukunyanzelisa. Abalawuli abakhiwe kuthotho lwamandla angenanayo nasebenzisanayo avumela isebe ngalinye ukuba lisikelwe umda amanye . Oko uJames Madison akubiza ngokuba “ziinqobo eziluncedo” kwi Fateralist No. 51. Le nkqubo yokuhlola nolungelelwaniso inqanda naliphi isebe ekuqokeleleni igunya elingathintelwanga kwaye ibangele izisusa zentsebenziswano kunye nokulalanisa.

Iingcebiso zoMthetho

IKhomishini inezixhobo ezininzi ezinamandla zokuthintela uMongameli kunye nesebe elilawulayo. Okokuqala, umthetho kufuneka udlulise omagumbini kwaye unikwe uMongameli; ukuba uMongameli unika umthetho, iKhomishini ingawulawula uvoti ezimbini kwindlu nganye, kodwa ingumda onzima. Okwesibini, iBhunga kufuneka liqinisekise ukumiswa koomongameli, kuquka amalungu ekhathere, abagwebi borhulumente, kunye namanxusa. IBhunga elinawo amandla esingxobo: lingala ukufikelela kwimali efanelekileyo yemibambo yabalawuli, ethintelayo. Okwesine, iBhunga liyakwazi ukukhokela ukuva imicimbi, ukubeka ityala, ukuhlolwa kwetyala, ukuhlolwa kwe-pointlawulo ezincinci, kwaye linyanze ubungqina obuvela kubalawuli. Ekugqibeleni, indlu ingangarhoxiswa nguMongameli wephondo, okanye ulwaphulo-mthetho oluphezulu, kunye nezinye ii-partivent, kunye nokugwetywa kwe-mthetho ezimbini ze-ombutho-osi-mthetho.

Isalathisi soMgaqo-siseko

Uhlolo oluthe ngqo lukaMongameli kwiBhunga ligunya likaMongameli elivumela uMongameli ukuba alwele umthetho. Ngoxa iNkqutyana idla ngokunyanzela abenzi bomthetho ukuba bathethe okanye balungise amatyala ukuze baphephe i-veto. UMongameli unawo amandla okuququluqela iKhomishini ekhethekileyo kwaye uyakwazi ukuthetha ngeKhomishini ngqo (Umbuso we-Union Union uyimfuno yemithetho esemthethweni). Ngaphezu koko, njengentloko yesebe eliphetheyo, uMongameli uyakwazi ukukhupha ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho lwesebe, nto leyo ekwaziyo ukuphazamisa izigwebo zesebe lejaji. Umongameli ukwanempembelelo enkulu kwimithetho ehamba ngokwemimiselo yomthetho, ethwala amandla omthetho kodwa aphantsi kokuhlola nokulawula umthetho.

Ukuxilonga Amasebe Ooaval

Ukuhlola okuyintloko kwejaji kumandla okuhlola okulawula, “‘ ukukwazi ukubetha imithetho edluliswa yiBhunga okanye izenzo ezithatyathwe nguMongameli ochasene nomGaqo-siseko. Eli gunya alichazwanga ngokucacileyo kwiGatya III kodwa lasekwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi . [[FLT:]] Magry v. Madison[[FLT:] [12] [54]], eyaphela ukulawulwa kwesizwe ezikolweni, kunye [FLT] ne-United States.[FUT] . [2] Imizekelo iquka [[FLT] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo yemfundo yezemfundo [FLT:] [5] [iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii]) ngexesha lokusetyenziswa kwemiqatha lenqanawa, iphinde ifumane izigwebo eziko, i-Grouptle izigwebo ezithelelwe ukuxhasa koonke, i-Ecustole.

Name

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela ayimi ndawonye; iyavavanywa rhoqo ziingxabano zobupolitika kunye neemeko ezitshintshayo. Umzekelo, emva kokuba uMongameli Obama ekhuphe uthotho lwezenzo zolawulo ekufudukeni ngo-2014, iNdlu yokumangalela, kunye nenkundla yephondo eTexas yawisa phantsi inkqubo, isigqibo ekugqibeleni esixhaswa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo eyahluliweyo. Ngokufanayo, ukuvalwa kohambo lukaMongameli uTrump kwacekwa kwiinkundla ezininzi, yaye ekugqibeleni iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo ixhasa uguqulelo oluhlaziyiweyo. La matyala abonisa indlela amasebe asebenza ngayo ngexesha lokwenene, kunye nesebe elisebenza njengendawo yokumisa emva xa elinye libonakala ligqwela igunya lalo.

Imvelaphi Yembali Neyolwimi

Ingcamango yokwahlula amagunya karhulumente ingaphambi komGaqo-siseko waseMerika. Isithandi sobulumko saseFransi uBaron de Montesquieu, kumsebenzi wakhe wowewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anamashumi asibhozo Umoya woMthetho , waphikisa ukuba inkululeko igcinwe kakuhle xa uwiso-mthetho, ulawulo oluphezulu, kunye namagunya obulungisa ahlulwe kwaye ngamnye uhlola omnye. Wayekholelwa ukuba ukunikela ingqalelo onke amagunya amathathu kumntu omnye okanye umzimba uzakukhokelela kulawulo olunamandla. Abaseki baseMelika babephenjelelwa kakhulu yi-Montesquieu, kunye noJohn Locle karhulumente kunye nomzekelo wembali womgaqo-siseko weBritane, osulelwe ngokwahlukeneyo, nangona beqala imisebenzi ethile.

Xa abathunywa babehlanganisene kwiNdibano yoMgaqo-siseko ngowe-1787, babezazi kakuhle iingozi zamandla aphezulu. Ukusilela kweZihlomelo zeConfederation (eziye zadala urhulumente obuthathaka ophakathi ozimeleyo okanye ongekho ngqongqo) kunye nokugqithisa kwezinye iindlu zowiso-mthetho zombuso ngexesha lee1780 zaqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe onamandla kakhulu uyimfuneko, kodwa kwakhona umele ukuba ucebe kakuhle ukunqanda ukuxhatshazwa. UJames Madison, owayesoloko ebizwa ngokuba “nguYise woMgaqo-siseko,” wayengumyili oyintloko wokwahlula amagunya kunye neenkqubo zolawulo. Kwisijajinganiso sooPhondo uNo. 4751, wachaza indlela athelekelelwayo umGaqo-siseko onokuthi athintele ukuba angangeni kwabanye.

UmGaqo-siseko owavela kwindibano yamagunya ahluleleneyo phakathi kwamasebe amathathu yaye kwakhona wadala inkqubo karhulumente egunya phakathi korhulumente wesizwe norhulumente. Olu lawulo lubini longezelela olunye umaleko wokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye, njengoko abemi benokubhenela kumgangatho karhulumente wokongamela.

Impembelelo Yamalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Ukwahlulwa kwamalungelo kukhusela ngokungqalileyo kumalungelo amaMelika ngeendlela ezininzi ezisisiseko. Ngenxa yokuba uMbutho kufuneka uPresidenti adlulisele imithetho, kufuneka ayinyanzelise, kwaye iinkundla kufuneka ziyichaze, nawuphi na umdlali okwindlela yokuchasa amalungelo ulinganiselwe. Umzekelo, umthetho othintela inkululeko yokuthetha kufuneka udluliswe zizo zombini izindlu zeBhunga, ezisayinwe nguMongameli (okanye ugqithe kwi-veto), aze aphumele kwintshutshiso yetyala. Le nkqubo yenyathelo eliziqikelelo likhulu ithoba phantsi kwesenzo sikarhulumente kwaye yakhe ngokuququlungela nokuzisela.

Isebe lejaji, ngokukodwa, lisebenza njengogcino lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ngamandla okuhlola ityala, iinkundla zingawisa imithetho engqubanayo neBhili yamaLungelo okanye ezinye ii-umgaqo-siseko. Iimeko zokuphawula njenge Gideon v. Wainwright [ekunene] [ekunene], [ekugqibeleni ekucengeni), [kungakungangeni kwe-mthetho], [kubandakanya ukungenelela kobuhlanga okanye ukukhusela uluntu. [[FLT] [FLT]] [kunye nokuzimela], [[FLT] ukhuseleko oluneekunye nokhuseleko olungokwasemthethweni.[FLT] [FLT] [5] [ekunene] (kulungile ukutshata imigca ephakathi kwemigca ye-ogropublictistiki.G, uk) uk-Geneade nokhuthu lwe-10)

Ukwahlukana kwamandla kukwakhuthaza ukubonakala nokuziphendulela. Ngenxa yokuba isebe ngalinye linokuphanda ngamanye (njengokuba iBhunga lithetha ngezenzo zesebe elilawulayo), abemi basengozini yokufunda ngokuxhatshazwa okunokwenzeka. Inkqubo yokungathobeli, nangona inqabile, isebenza njengendlela egqibeleleyo yokuchasa ukuchasana kwegunya eliphezulu. Ngale ndlela, inkqubo ikhuthaza impucuko yokunyanzeliswa okusemthethweni okuyingenelo kubemi bonke.

Ucelomngeni Lwexesha Lanamhlanje

Ngoxa ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kungqineke kuhlala kudala, kujongene noxinezeleko olubalulekileyo kwinkulungwane engamashumi amabini anesihlanu. Ukukhula kwezobupolitika, ukukhula kwesizwe solawulo, nokusetyenziswa okukhulayo kwesenzo sokulawula esingekho mgaqweni kuye kwavavanya ulungelelwano lomgaqo-siseko. Ukuqonda ezi ngxaki kubalulekile ekuhloleni impilo yedemokhrasi yaseMerika.

Ukuvela kweMithetho yeGama eliLawulayo

Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, abalawuli bobabini bajolise kwimiyalelo yabalawuli abalawulayo ukuze baphumeze iinjongo zabo ngaphandle komthetho omtsha. Kumongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt imiyalelo edala ukusetyenziswa kwemikhosi yamaJaphani aseMerika ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi II ukuya kwimiyalelo yakutshanje etshintsha imozulu, ukufuduka, kunye nokulawulwa kwemipu, imiyalelo yabalawuli ivumela oomongameli ukuba bashiye iBhunga. Ngoxa iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaxhasa amandla amakhulu omongameli ukukhokela isebe eliphetheyo, abagxeki bephikisa ukuba ukusebenzisa kakhulu imiyalelo yabalawuli abalawulayo kulula iprojective inkqubo yemithetho yesebe elinye. Iingqungquthela zingamelana nale imiyalelo ngokukhupha imithetho ethintela imigaqo ethile, kodwa ifuna ukuvunywa komongameli okanye ukulawulwa kwemeko-andleko-ngalawuleki. [Falct:0]

Ulolongo lweNkcubeko kunye nokuBekelwa iliso

IBhunga langoku lizifumanisa lingakwazi ukumisela umthetho omkhulu kwimibandela ephikisanayo, nto leyo ekhokelela ekubeni kubekho abathunywa abaphambili abagunyazisa umthetho kumaqumrhu olawulo. UMongameli, ngala masebe, anganikela imimiselo enegunya lomthetho. Nangona oku kungafuneki ukuba kumiselwe urhulumente. /INkundla ePhakamileyo ivumele abathunywa ababanzi ukuba basebenze logama nje kukho “umgaqo ongenakuchazwa” okhokela amaqumrhu phakathi komthetho kunye nemisebenzi yempatho. Ngaphezu koko, i-Rhothi yenze inkqubo yokuqinisekisa ukubekwa kwemithetho kunye nokubekwa kwemimiselo yetyala, ithoba ukusebenza korhulumente nokunyuka kokusebenza kwamagosa. Inzululwazi yezopolitiki kunye nabaphengululi bezomthetho baye babhala kakhulu ngeziphumo zenkqubo yokuqinisekisa [FLD:0]

Ukungaququzeli kwemithetho yezomthetho

Ijudiary ngokwayo ayithintelwanga ekugxekweni. Iingxoxo ezingo “kumthetho wokulwa” kunye“ nokuzibamba komthetho” zibonisa ukungavumelani okunzulu ngendima efanelekileyo yeenkundla kwidemokrasi. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi abagwebi bafanele bathabathe amasebe baphinde babethe imithetho kuphela xa bechasa ngokucacileyo umGaqo-siseko; abanye baphikisa ngelithi ijaji imele ikhusele amalungelo amancinane kwaye inyanzelise imigaqo yoMgaqo-siseko ebanzi. Izigqibo zamvana zeNkuntlukwano ezingo zakutshanje ezikhoyo, isekeli yemimiselo, kunye namandla equlunqeni eliphezulu andise le mpikiswano. Inkqubo yokuqinisekisa inkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaba yimfazwe yezobupolitika, kunye neqela ngalinye elifuna ukuseka abagwebi abavumelana neembono zayo, ukuphakamisa imibuzo ngemigaqo-yo yonke imo yokukhululeka ye-mali ye-judicatary.

Isiphelo

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya kungaphezulu kunento engokwembali, yinkqubo ephilayo eqhubeka ibumba amalungelo nenkululeko yawo onke amaMelika. Ngokufuna ukuba ukubekwa komthetho, ukugcinwa komthetho, kunye nokucaciswa komthetho kwenziwe ngamaqumrhu ahlukeneyo anamandla angenawo, umGaqo-siseko wenza amandla akhuselayo ekukhohlakaleni nasekukhuthazeni ukuphendula. Ukwahlulwa kwamandla okulawula. Abemi abayiqonda le nkqubo baxhotyiswe bhetele ukuba baqonde xa ukulungelelaniswa nokunyamezelwa komgaqo-siseko nokunyanzeleka. Njengoko ubunzima bexesha langoku buvavanya ukubuyiselwa kwezi zakhiwo, ubulumko obuhlala bunguMadison kunye nezikhephe zihlala ziselukhokeleni. Ukwa kwamandla ahlala eluncedo. Ukwahlulwa koo-Omandla akungowona mmandla nje urhulumente waseMelika; ngumandla obelockstiki ozi wenkululeko.