Imvelaphi Yokwahlukana Kwemfundiso Yamandla

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya akuyonto yanamhlanje; imvelaphi yawo ikwintanda-bulumko yamandulo yezobupolitika. UAristotle wachaza urhulumente oxubeneyo odibanisa ubukumkani, ubuhandiba, kunye nedemokhrasi, kodwa isakhiwo sale mihla esicaciswe ngexesha lokhanyiso. UBaron de Montesquieu, kumsebenzi wakhe wewaka elingu 1748 Umoya woMthetho , waphikisana ukuba ukubekwa kwegunya kwemithetho, ulawulo lwezikomkhulu, kunye namandla okugweba kwizandla ezifanayo ngokungenakunqandwa. Iingcamango zakhe zale , zaphembelela kakhulu iimfundiso kwiU.S. UmGaqo-siseko oweyodwa ngookanye nowesi II. UYakobi ubhala kwintlalo-ntle yamazwe omkhosi, i-grona, i-Genequastical, kunye ne-Geneacean, umgaqo-othe kufuphi nesizwe ngasinye, umgaqo woburhulumente woburhulumente woburhulumente.

Injongo engundoqo yalo lwahlulo lolwakhiwo intlu - mbini: ukuthintela naliphi na isebe ekulawuleni nokunyanzela amasebe ukuba asebenzisane, aphumele ulawulo olude nolulungeleleneyo. Xa imida phakathi kwamasebe ifiphale, inkqubo yokuhlola kunye nolungelelwano oluyilelwe ukugcina ulungelelwaniso iqala ukonakala. Ukuqonda iziphumo zoqhatha ngolo hlobo kubalulekile ukuze kulondolozwe ukuthembeka komgaqo-siseko.

Amasebe Amathathu: Achaza Indima Nemida YomGaqo-siseko

Kwinkqubo karhulumente wase-United States, njengakulawulo-melo oluninzi, urhulumente wahlulwe waba ngamasebe amathathu alinganayo. Ngamnye unomsebenzi oyintloko, kodwa amandla awo adibana ngeendlela ezibangela ukuba kufuneke ityala.

  • Isebe eliphumezayo: Elilawulwa ngumongameli, elisebe linyanzelisa imithetho, liqhuba inkqubo yamanye amazwe, liyalela umkhosi, kwaye lilawula amaqumrhu karhulumente. Igunya lalo licaciswe kwiGatya II lomGaqo-siseko, elinika umongameli amandla okuphumeza imithetho ngokuthembeka, limisele amagosa, kunye nomthetho weveto.
  • Isebe elinomthetho: Congress, ekhiwe yiNdlu yabameli neNdlu yeeNtlanganiso, iphethe amandla okwenza imithetho (iNjongo I). Ikwalawula uqingqo-mali, ivakalisa imfazwe, iqinisekisa ukubekwa kwesebe eliphetheyo kunye nokugweba, kwaye inamandla okuphela kokunganyusi.
  • [[FLT: 0] Isebe leMibuliso: Iinkundla zorhulumente, ezikhokelwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo, ezitolika imithetho kunye nomGaqo-siseko (Artle III). Ngokuhlola kwezomthetho, amandla amiselwe ku Marbury v. Madison [18, iinkundla zingazenza buthathaka izenzo zamanye amasebe achasene nomGaqo-siseko.

Ezi ndima azizodwa ngokungqongqo; inkqubo ibangela ukuxabana ngabom. Umongameli angawubeka umthetho, kodwa iNgqungquthela ingawuphelisa loo mthetho. Iinkundla zingayibetha imithetho, kodwa iBhunga linokucebisa izindululo zomgaqo-siseko ukuze kutshintshwe iinkcazelo zomthetho. Le nkqubo isebenzisana injini yokuhlola nokulinganisela.

Ukufikelela okungaphezulu kolawulo: Xa uMongameli ekhupha iGunya

Izenzo zolawulo oluphezulu ziyenzeka xa umongameli okanye amaqumrhu olawulo esenza okungaphaya komgangatho wamagunya anikwe ngumGaqo-siseko okanye umthetho womthetho.

Iintlobo eziqhelekileyo zofikelelo oluphezulu

  • Imiyalelo ehambelanayo kunye neZigqibo: Abameli abakhupha umyalelo wolawulo oluphezulu ukuba banike imiyalelo yokwalathisa imisebenzi karhulumente. Ngeli xesha abaninzi bebekwe kumthetho okanye kwigunya lomgaqo-siseko, ukuphamba kwenzeka xa umyalelo udala umthetho omtsha okanye ugqitha iBhunga. Umzekelo, uMongameli Truman ka 1952 umyalelo wokubamba izigingqi zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe eKhoriya wabethwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi ulutsha olusemowhep & Tube. Co. sounder, umzekelo obalulekileyo wokwenza ukuba umongameli angakwazi ukuqulusela ngaphandle komkelo lwesivumelwano.
  • Emperency Powers: Ngexesha lamanqam (iimfazwe, iindyikitya zokufa, iintlekele zemvelo), oomongameli bangazibanga belawula amagunya ongxamiseko. Umthetho we-National Emertications Act ka-1976 wawucebe ngenjongo yokulawula ezo zibhengezo, kodwa oomongameli baye bayisebenzisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ekuvuleni amagunya abanzi. Ukusetyenziswa komoya kunakho ukukhokelela kwimeko esisigxina, ukukhutshwa kwenkululeko yabemi kunye nolawulo lomthetho wolawulo. Umzekelo obalulekileyo nguMongameli u-Crump Brump's 2019 umiselo lomkhosi lwemali oluthe lwasemdeni, nto leyo icelwe kwinkundla.
  • IiNgxelo zoMqondiso zoMqondiso: Ngamanye amaxesha abameli bafaka intshumayelo yokutyikitya ebhengeza iinjongo zokunganyanzelisi imiqathango ethile yomthetho. Ngelixesha ezi zinokuba sisixhobo esisemthethweni sokukhusela i-oksiti yegunya, zisebenza kwakhona njengomgca-ilungu leveto, iNkundla Ephakamileyo eyayingakukholelwangangqubaniyo [[FLT:] Clinton v. City of New York[3]
  • [[NTL:0] Ukubekwa kweNgxowa-mali: Xa umongameli engavumi ukuchitha imali efunwa yiBhunga, unciphisa ulawulo lowiso-mthetho phezu kwengxowa-mali. UMthetho woLawulo loMmandla wonyaka ka-1964 uthintela lo msebenzi, kodwa iimpikiswano ziyaqhubeka, ezifana noMongameli Nixon's ophosa inyathelo lomthetho.

Isifundo Setyala Embalini: Ulawulo LweNixon Nolwamanzi

Ihlazo leWatergate limela umzekelo obalulekileyo wokuphaphazanyiswa kwegunya kunye neziphumo zalo. Umongameli Richard Nixon ulawulo lwakhe olubandakanyeke kuthotho lokuxhatshazwa, kuquka ukuqhekezwa kweKomiti yeSizwe yeDemocratic kunye nolwelo olulandelayo. Xa iBhunga leNtlanganiso lihlola, uNixon wacela ilungelo eliphezulu lokuvimba iikhasethi namaxwebhu. INkundla ePhakamileyo [FLT] eUnited States v. Nikon[FLT] [1277] [127]) kunye newonkenelo lokugatya ilungelo elipheleleyo, elinyanzelisa uNixon ukuba athobele. Ngokuphantse ukuba angahambisani namaphepha athile, Nixon uNixon u-offrensie. Umongameli ubonakalisa imposiso kumbandela ophezulu ekujongeneni nolawulo olungomthetho kunye nokuchokoza kwe-othotho.

Imizekelo Yanamhlanje: Ukusetyenziswa Okukhulu Kwenyathelo Lolawulo

Abalawuli bomabini abaququzeleli baye batyhalela imida yegunya elilawulayo. Ngokomzekelo, uMongameli Obama’s Defect for Childhood Avelts (DACA) inkqubo, eyasungulwa ngumphathi ophetheyo ngo-2012, yanika inkxaso yexeshana ekugxothweni kwelizwe labemi abavela kwamanye amazwe ukuya kungena e-U.S. njengabantwana. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba yayingumtshutshisi weqhinga lokurhwebi owe ngokunempumelelo ogunyazinzileyo kwinkundla yokufuduka. Inkundla ephakamileyo ngo-20202020 yavala umzamo we-Trump ukuzama ukuphinda i-DACA, kodwa ukukhutshwa okusemthethweni kocwangciso lokuqala lwemfundo kuhlala kuhleli. Ngokunjalo, icebo lokuxolelwa kwabafundi elithengwa ngumthetho, lavakaliswa ngu-20222, iNkuqulundlo [BB] [202]

Ukungawi Ngomthetho: Xa ingqungquthela igqitha

Ukungenelela komthetho kwenzeka xa iNgqungquthela izama ukuxhakamfula igunya elifanelekileyo elilawulwa yinkundla elawulayo okanye elilawulayo, okanye xa isebenzisa amandla ayo ngendlela ebangela ukuba aphule inkululeko yamanye amasebe.

Ingqinisekiso yeNdlela yokuSebenza kunye namagunya agunya

UMgaqo-siseko ufuna ukuba iNdlu yamaBhunga icebise kwaye ivume ukumiswa komongameli kunye nezivumelwano. Noko ke, iNdlu yeNtsimbi iyakwazi ukuphatha eli gunya ngokwala ukuva okanye ukulibazisa ukuqinisekiswa kwetyala ixesha elide. Lo mkhwa, maxa wambi obizwa ngokuba “yi-advice kunye ne-slect,” unokwenza ukuba isebe eliphetheyo lingakwazi ukuqhuba amasebe kunye nesebe elilawulayo lingakwazi ukunikezela ngamagunya omongameli u-Intelligente Gofore. Ngonyaka wama-2016, iBhunga lolawulo lweRiphabliki lolawulo lwama lala ukuvalela ukuva ityala likaMongameli Obama elikwinkundla ephakamileyo, uMerrick Garland, phantse ngonyaka we-20171717, ukuqwalasela ingqhinga kwimidlalo yezopoliti yezopolitiko yesizwe.

Ukuzingisa Njengesixhobo Sezobupolitika

Ukuphembelela kusisixhobo somgaqo-siseko soMgaqo-siseko weNdlu yabameli ukuba alawule abasemagunyeni abaphetheyo okanye abagwebi abaphethe “izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho eziphezulu nabagwebi.” Nangona kucetywe ukuba kuhlolwe ukuziphatha okubi, kungasetyenziswa kakubi iinjongo zokuquququzelela. Omabini uMongameli uAndrew Johnson (owaququlwe ngowe-1868 ngenxa yokwaphula umthetho we-Ofisi, kamva walawula ukungaququli-mthetho) kunye noMongameli Bill Clinton (ocetly Constann (uthe projects) kunye noMphathi u-Estery (okanye 2021) wagweba ityala lokungagunyaziswa kwegunya nokuphembelela) wandisa ilizwe, ukunyuka kwelizwe ukuba ngaba ngaba umphetho oweli wezo lwezopolitiki endaweni yesixhobo sokukhetha umgaqo-mthetho ohlala.

Imigudu ye-Vitoes yoMgaqo-siseko kunye neMimiselo ye-Vito yeLine

Kunyaka we-1970, iNkundla yaqalisa ukusebenzisa “i-FLT" ukulawula izenzo zolawulo oluphezulu ngaphandle kokudlulisa umthetho omtsha. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yavakalisa oku kungenziwanga ngokomthetho INS v. Chadha [19983], ilawula ukuba nasiphi na isenzo ngegunya lomthetho simele sidlule kuzo zombini izindlu kwaye sinikelwe kumongameli. Ngokufanayo, iNgqungquthela yazama ukunika umongameli umgca-imbeto ngo 1996, kodwa iNkundla Ephakamileyo yawubetha phantsi [[FLT:]] Clinton v. V. kwisiXeko saseNew York, iqinisekisa ukuba umongameli akanakunikwa amalungu akhethekileyo ngaphandle kokwaphula umthetho.

Isigwebo sezeejaji: Xa Iinkundla Zigqugqisa

Izenzo zomthetho zibhekisela kwiimeko apho iinkundla zihamba ngaphaya kokutolika imithetho yaye zenza inkqubo okanye ngokunempumelelo ukuphinda zibhale imimiselo. Ngoxa iinkundla kufuneka zisebenzise ingqiqo, ukuphanda kungonakalisa ilungelo lejaji nokuvusa ukuququzelelana kweminye imiqathango.

Imizekelo Yokufikelela Ngokugqithisileyo Kweejaji

  • [[Nkundla Ephakamileyo] ikhupha i-Bench: [Ku- I-Roe v. Wade [1773], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yenza ilungelo elingomgaqo-siseko lokuqhomfa ngokusekelwe ku “balawuli” bamalungelo obuqu angachazwanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba iNkundla yayiqaqabe indima yayo ngokubeka umthetho wesizwe kwimbambano yemithetho yokuziphatha, ngokuphumelelayo ekutshayeni imigaqo yomthetho. Isigqibo sahlala sidide savunywa yi-waka de kwavukelwa . Iqela lamabhinqa e-Jackson Health [FLT:] [FFD5] [202]
  • Ifumene ilungelo lokwandiswa kwamaLungelo afanayo ngokucaciswa kweJaji: Kwi Kwi-[FT:2] -Obergefell v. Hodges (2015], iNkundla yafumana ilungelo elisemthethweni lomtshato ofanayo ngaphantsi koHluHlulo lweMpanziso-Mganiso weshumi elinesine. Ngelixesha ibhiyokubhiyozelwa njengoloyiso, isigqibo esifutshane sedemokhrasi apho umlinganiselo womtshato wawusaqhutyelwa. IJaji Antonin Scilia yaphikisa into yokuba iNkuNkuny Scielwa kweNkundla “inyanise ngokwayo ukuba kugqitywe oko kumele kugqitywe ngabantu baseMelika."
  • [[FLT: 0] Ukusebenzisa ulawulo oluphezulu lwenkqubela yezoqoqosho, ukutolika okubanzi " Ku [[FT:2]] Kelo v. IsiXeko saseNew London (2005], iNkundla yaxhasa ukusetyenziswa kommandla obalulekileyo kwinkqubela yezoqoqosho, ukuquka “umsebenzi woluntu" ukuquka inkqubela-phambili yabucala evelisa irhafu. Esi sigqibo sagxekwa ngokuba sityeshela injongo yokuqala yokuthatha uClaus, kukhokelela kumazwe amaninzi ekudluliseni imithetho ethintela ukuxhuzula okunjalo.

Imfundiso Yokuthotywa Kwemiqathango

Ukuze balwe nezenzo zomthetho, abagwebi abaninzi baxhasa imbono yokuba iinkundla zifanele zithobele imigaqo-mthetho naninina kunokwenzeka, zilandele imizekelo encinci, zigqibe imizekelo ecacileyo. Imizekelo ebalaseleyo iquka iPriestk Frankfur yentanda-bulumko yezomthetho kunye neJaji yamva uRuth Bad Giner Ginsburg imbono yokuba iinkundla zifanele zisebenze “njengesiko elihamba phambili elingenakutshintsha ibutho labantu. Noko ke, umgca phakathi kokutolikwa okusemthethweni nokukhuselwa ngokuchuliweyo uyaziwa kakubi, kwaye impikiswano phakathi kwezenzo zobuGawula nento iyaqhubeka ichaza i-Americancukarisprudentia.

Ubuchule Bokukhangela Nokulungelelana

UmGaqo-siseko unika isebe ngalinye izixhobo zokuxhathisa ukuphangwa zezinye. Ukuqonda ezi nkqubo kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ekufuneka ilungiswe ngayo.

  • Presidential Veto: umongameli angabuyisela isindululo kwiKhonkxa ephikisayo. Ingqungquthela ingawudlulisa u-veto kunye noninzi oluzii-3 ezimbini kumagumbi omabini. Eli gunya liqinisekisa ukuba umthetho ubonakalisa ukuvumelana okubanzi.
  • Ukulawula okuzimeleyo: IKhomishini ingaphanda izenzo zolawulo ngokuva, iipona, kunye neengxelo. I-ofisi zeMali kaRhulumente (GAO) kunye nabahloli jikelele banikela ulawulo oluzimeleyo. IBhunga likwalawula uqingqo-mali, liyigosa imali kwiinkqubo ezingavumelaniyo.
  • Ukuqinisekisa: IBhunga kufuneka livumele uququzelelo oluphezulu nolwezomthetho. Oku kuhlola kuthintela umongameli ekungasebenzisini urhulumente neenkundla kunye nabahlali abagqithiseleyo ngokweengcamango.
  • Ukuhlomela nokususa: Indlu ingawatyumza amagosa karhulumente ngenxa yehambo engafanelekanga, kwaye iNdlu yeeNgwevu inokubasusa ngevoti ezimbini-ntathu. Eli gunya lisebenza kumongameli, umongameli, umongameli, abagwebi, namanye amagosa asekuhlaleni.
  • [[NTLALA: 0] Jodicial Review: Iinkundla zingavakalisa izenzo zegunya okanye imimiselo ukuba ayihambelani. Amandla eNkundla ePhakamileyo okuhlola isigwebo, aqinisekiswe [ Marbury v. Madison, mhlawumbi luvavanyo olunamandla kwamanye amasebe.
  • IsiHlalisi-Mpanzi seNkundla ePhakamileyo: Congress ingacebisa ukuba kulungiswe umGaqo-siseko ngevoti ezimbini kwizindlu zombini, okanye indibano ibizwe ngeendlu zowiso-mthetho ezimbini eziziisithathu zikarhulumente. Iziphengululo zingasiguqula isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo (umz., isiHlamlo se 16 sokuHlaziya siwise Pollock v. Afors’s Loan & Trust.[FLT]] kwirhafuto yengeniso).

Ezi ngqikelelo zisebenza kuphela ukuba isebe ngalinye likulungele ukuzisebenzisa nokuhlonela umthetho. Xa amasebe evuma ukuphangwa okanye ukudibana, inkqubo iyawohloka.

Uhlolisiso Lwemeko Olwenziwe Ehlabathini Lonke

Ulawulo - melo oluninzi lujamelana nocelomngeni olufanayo, lunikela izifundo zokuthelekisa amagunya.

IHungary: Ukuqalisa Kwenkululeko Yokugweba

Phantsi koMphathiswa oMphathiswa oMkhulu uViktor Orbán, eHungary uye wafumana ulwahlulo olucwangcisiweyo lweenkokeli kunye nolungelelwano. Ukususela ngo-2010, iqela lakhe iFidesz liye lasebenzisa ubuchule balo obubalaseleyo kwipalamente ukuphinda libhale umgaqo-siseko, lipakisha inkundla yomgaqo-siseko kunye nama-arhente athembekileyo, likhuphe inkundla yenkundla yenkululeko. Inkundla yesizwe yaseYurophu iye yazigweba ngokuphindaphindiwe ezi zenzo, kodwa ubuchule bokunyanzelo lwangaphakathi bubuthathaka. Inkundla ye-Comyutha yomthetho-ontaxhem eHungary ibonise indlela ulawulo lwemithetho-omatilo-o-o-odolot [1] apho indlu-mthetho eqhutywa ngokuzithandela ikhokelela kwi-demokhrasi. Inkundla ye-Europe yeJajini neKhomishini yeLula iye yaqalisa iphuhlisa i-mthetho, kodwa umonakalo kumthetho waseHungary inzulu.

IIndiya: Ukubekwa kweliso kwegunya kunye nokuphindwa kwesigwebo

Inkqubo yepalamente yaseIndiya inikel ’ ingqalelo kwigunya eliyintloko (iNkulumbuso kunye neBhunga eliphetheyo) logama nje iqela elilawulayo lilawula uninzi. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, kuye kwavela amaxhala kuMphathiswa oyiNkulumbuso uNarendra Modi urhulumente esebenzisa imithetho ukuvala iPalamente, ukunqanda inkululeko yokushicilela, kwaye kuthomalalisa ukuzimela kweKhomishini yoLuhlu. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yaseIndiya iye yasihla inyathelo eliyilwa phantsi kweyelenqena necebo lokuzibophelela elivumela ukuba kunikelwe iminikelo yezopolitiko ezingachazwanga. Noko ke, i-judiary ngokwayo ijongeneyo iintsoko yemithetho esemva kwelonke neyo yokugqweqwela. Umzekelo weIndiya ubonisa ukuba kwaneenkumeko yomthetho eqinileyo ifuna ukuhlala iphakal ’ igoso ukuze igcine igunya layo.

Ubungqina Boburhulumente

Ekupheleni, impilo yokwahlulwa kwamagunya ixhomekeke kulwazi nomsebenzi wobumi. Xa uluntu luyiqonda imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko, lungaqonda ukuphaphanyiswa nokunyanzeliswa komGaqo-siseko ngonyulo, ukuchotshelwa, nokuqhathwa koxolo. Imibutho yabemi, umatshini wokushicilela okhululekileyo, neeyunivesithi ezizimeleyo zonke zidlala iindima ezibalulekileyo kwihambo karhulumente. uMzi woMgaqo-siseko wesizwe [[[[FLT:]]] unika oovimba bemfundo yolwazi nolungelelwano oluphezulu. [[FLT:] [FT:]] [5] [iiicandelo eliphambili] [FLT] lineethelela iingxoxo ezingokwembali, [FLT]

Isiphumo: Ukuzigcinela umGaqo-siseko we-Equilibrium

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya akuyo inkqubo yokuzibhubhisa; imfuneko yokuzigcina ngokuqhubekayo kunye nokuthanda kwezobupolitika. Xa isebe eliphetheyo, lowiso-mthetho, okanye eligweba liyitsiba imida yalo, umonakalo ungadityaniswa. Imiyalelo yegunya elilawulayo edlulayo kwiBhunga, imiqobo yemithetho ethintela amabhongo, kunye nemithetho elawulayo elawula ukususwa kweenkqubo zedemokhrasi ziphele zonke izinto ezinokuthenjwa kwinkqubo. Imbali ibonisa ukuba eyona ndlela isebenzayo kukudityalwa kwesakhiwo solawulo lwezikontili kunye nobumi obusebenzayo. Abaqulumbi beMelika bakuqonda oku, nto leyo ebangela ukuba basungule inkqubo yokulwa kwamabhongo. Njengabemi, abafundisi, nabafundi, nabaqondisi bezo zinto ezixhobisayo ukuba sikhusele inkqubo yomgaqo-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko somthetho-siseko. Ixesha elizayo libonakala ngathi lingaphaya kombuzo, kufuneka balilungele ukukhangela okanye ukusebenza kwabo, bathotywa ngokuncishwa kwexesha elizayo?