UMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States uye wasebenza njengomthetho ophakamileyo welizwe ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, kodwa intsingiselo yawo ihlala ingumbandela wengxoxo enzulu neqhubekayo. Abagwebi bafanele baluchaze njani uxwebhu olubhalwe ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinesibhozo xa bejamelene neengxaki zamashumi amabini-kuqala ze-centurry ezifana nemfihlo yamanani, ubunjineli bemizila yemfuza yemfuza, okanye umtshato omnye, okanye inkqubela-phambili yembali enye? izikolo ezibanzi zokucinga zilawula le ngxoxo: inkcubeko yoqobo nengcamango yemGaqo-siseko ephilayo. Ukuqonda ulwalamano phakathi kwezi zicwangciso-siseko ezicacisa indlela umthetho waseMelika ezimayela nesizathu sokuba izigqibo zogwebo zibangele impikiswano enkulu. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iinkcazelo, ukuphuhliswa nophuhlisoqobo kwezi ntanda-bulumko zimbini, ukulungiselela ukuqwalasela kwisiseko somthetho we-groposom

Ukwahlula Ubuxoki

Ingcamango yoqobo yenkcazo yomgaqo-siseko egcina intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko imele imiswe kwaye isekelwe ekuqondeni okukhoyo xa ilungiselelo ngalinye lagunyaziswa. Le ndlela iyayichasa ingcamango yokuba intsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko inokutshintsha ngokuhamba kwexesha ngokutolikwa ngokutsha kwezomthetho. Endaweni yoko, iingcali zenkcazo yendalo ziphikisa ngelithi naluphi na utshintsho kumGaqo-siseko kufuneka lufike ngenkqubo yokulungisa okusesikweni okuchazwe kwiQumrhu V, hayi ngokufunda ikomiti yokugweba.

Intsingiselo kawonke-wonke yantlandlolo

Kubukho ubukho boqobo, kukho uguqulelo lwakudala olubini. Uguqulelo lwakudala, olubizwa ngokuba luyinjongo yokuqala yobukho bobukho bobukho benqanawa [[FTLT:1], lugxininisa koko abalawuli ngokwabo babenenjongo yokuchaza umbhalo. Le mbono yafumana uphakamiso ngoo 1980 ngobuninzi obufana no Attorney Edwin Meese III neJaji uWilliam J. Brennan's ahlalut. Noko ke, uguqulelo oluthe kratya olungakumbi oluthenjiweyo ([] uguqulelo lukawonke-wonke lwentsingiselo yoqobo [[FLTLT:3]]]]] [iphakalll.ukulo olufuna ukuba umntu ofanelekileyo ngexesha lokwenziwa kwe-ratiation uluqonde, kungakhathaliseki ukuba uthetha njani, i-Genestitual Scestiant, ngaphandle kokuba ingenzile ithetha intsingiselo yayo.

Abaxhasi Abaphambili Nemvelaphi Yembali

I-Syndromeism ilandela imvelaphi yayo yobulumko kwisizukulwana sokuFuma, apho abaxhasi besakhelo badla ngokubhenela kwintsingiselo yantlandlolo yemibhalo esemthethweni. Kodwa njengengcamango yokutolika yequmrhu lomthetho, yavela kakhulu ekusabeleni kwimithetho eninzi yeNkundla yaseWarren neNkundla yasemva kwe Burger. Abameli abaphambili baquka iJaji Scalia, uClarence Thomas, Justice Robert Bork, kwaye ngokutsha kweJaji uAmy Coney noJaji Gor Gormoth. Izazi ezisemthethweni ezifana noRand Barnett, Steven Calabresi, noMichael Ramsey bathey ingcamango ephambili, idibanisa ne-clardism ne-mments. Inginega yomthetho-siseko sobuzwelo nyaka ka-1910.[0]

Iingcamango Eziqhelekileyo Zokuyila

Abahlalutyi bathi ubuQala abusebenzi kuba ukufumanisa intsingiselo yantlandlolo kawonke-wonke yamalungiselelo amfiliba okanye angekho ngqiqweni (njengesiXhosa soMphengululo wesiXhosa esingu-8h kunye negama elingaqhelekanga”) kunzima kakhulu. Bakwathi ubuqaqo bakuqala bungavelisa iziphumo ezikhathazayo ngokwemilinganiselo yokuziphatha, njengokuxhasa ukukhuselwa okanye ukuthintelwa kwamalungelo abantu. Abameli baphendula ngokuthi ubukho bokuqala bunika uzinzo, ukuxelelwa kwangaphambili, kunye nokuziphendulela kolawulo lwedemokhrasi, kwaye iziphumo ezingafanelekanga ngokokuziphatha zimele zilungiswe ngenkqubo yokulungisa imigaqo yokuziphatha kunokulawula ikomiti.

Imfundiso Ephilayo YomGaqo-siseko

Ngokwahlukileyo kumthetho wokuqala, ingcamango yomGaqo-siseko ophilayo ibambelele ekubeni intsingiselo yoxwebhu ingaguquka kwaye ifanele iguquke kwixesha elithile ukuphendula iimeko ezintsha kunye nenkqubela-phambili yentlalo. Le ndlela ayiwuchani umGaqo-siseko njengekhowudi emileyo kodwa njengesiseko esinamandla esinemigaqo emele isetyenziswe kwiingxaki zangoku. Phantsi komGaqo-siseko ophilayo, abagwebi banobubhetyebhetye-bhetye ngakumbi ukutolika amabinzana abanzi ```ibertry,” “ukhuseleko olulingana,” okanye“ inkqubo eqhubekayo”.

Inkqubela Yembali Neentloko Ezixhasayo

Ingcamango ephilayo yomGaqo-siseko inemvelaphi enzulu kwingcinga engokomthetho yaseMerika. IJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall, [FLT: 0] uMculo wkru. [Maryland (1819), ithe ngodumo ukuba uMgaqo-siseko “uzimisele ukunyamezela ixesha elide ezayo” kwaye umele“ ufunyanwe kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo zemicimbi yabantu.” Kwinkulungwane yamashumi amabini, Justice Oliver Holson Holmes Jr., Justice Louis Brandeits, kwaye kamva uMahluleli uWilliam J. Brennan ukhuthaza ngamandla oku kufikelelwa koluvo olu. IJaji yowayo lwezo-1986 eGeorge Town University, “umthetho-onke, u-Authomocraccel, u-Gene onyanze imo-mthetho-siseko we-Genelvelselvices , u-Arthesword, uGenelveth, uGene-DesposeT.[3]

Indima Yokuba Ngumntu Othile Nomntu Othile

AbaLawuli bomgaqo-siseko abahlalayo baphikisa ngelithi intsingiselo yoMgaqo-siseko ibunjwe zizizukulwana zenkqubo yokugweba, izenzo zomthetho, kunye nendaleko yenkcubeko. Umzekelo, ukuvalwa kweSindululo seMiqathango seNkqutyana yesibhozo sesohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesongaqhelekanga kusoloko kutolikwa ngokwe-“imilinganiselo ecacileyo yesidima ephawula inkqubela-phambili yebutho labantu,” njengoko iNkundla ePhakamileyo ichazwe ] uWeems v. United States [1910] kwaye iphinda ichazwe ku P. Dulles[FLT][F:3] [195]] [1958]). Le ndlela ivumela ukuba iinkundla zibethe imithetho echasene nokuqondwa kwamalungelo abantu abakhoyo ngexesha elinye, ukuba ithenjiweyo.

Izicelo eziqhelekileyo zomGaqo-siseko ophilayo

Abahlalutyi, ngokukodwa abokuqala, baphikisa ngelithi umGaqo-siseko ophilayo unika abagwebi amandla angathintelekiyo okunyanzela iimbono zabo zobuqu phantsi kokutolika. Baphikisa ngelithi ithoba umthetho ngokwenza intsingiselo yomgaqo-siseko ingazinzi kwaye ixhomekeke kwizinto zezobupolitika ezikhethwa yijaji. Abaguquleli bembali baphawula ukuba isizukulwana esiFunyaniswayo sasinenjongo yoMgaqo-siseko ukuba simisele amandla karhulumente, singasebenzeli njengendlela yokuhlola iqhinga lomthetho. Ukuze kuqwalaselwe ngokucokisekileyo kwezi mbono ziphikisanayo, bona ungceleleko lwezintlukwano lwezopoliti yemithetho yoqobo olusekelwe kwimfundiso yomthetho yoqobo kunye noluko oluphilayo .

Umahluko Oyintloko Phakathi Kwendlela Ezimbini Zokusondela

Ulwahlulo olusembindini luxhomekeke kumthombo nokuzinza kwentsingiselo yomGaqo-siseko. I-Dartrim ijonge emva kwincopho yembali emiselweyo, ngeli xesha ubugqeba obuphilayo bukhangele phambili ekupheliseni izithethe zoluntu. La manqaku alandelayo abalaselisa umahluko ongundoqo:

  • Umthombo wentsingiselo: Isiseko sobuConstanti esithetha ukuqonda kokuqala koluntu ekudityanisweni; ukuhlala komGaqo-siseko kujonga intsingiselo njengevela kwincoko phakathi kombhalo, imizekelo, kunye namaxabiso akhoyo.
  • I-Role yeJaji: Ijaji yendalo ifuna ukusebenzisa intsingiselo yembali ngokuthembekileyo, ngokufuthi ithintela iimbono zobuqu. Ijaji ephilayo yomgaqo-siseko ingasebenzisa ugwebo olungakumbi ekusebenziseni imigaqo emininzi kwiingongoma ezintsha.
  • [[FLT: 0] Ububanzi kumgangatho ophezulu: imodeli ithatha umzekelo njengobalulekileyo kodwa hayi njengebopheleleko xa ingqubana nentsingiselo yokuqala (umz., Scalia kwi Icandelo leColumbia v. Heller). Ukuphila kwemithetho-siseko kubeka ubunzima obuphezulu kumzekelo njengesithuthi solwando lokwandiswa.
  • Amandla oMkhosi: Abaxhasi bobuGcisa bagxininisa ukuba iinguqu ezinkulu kufuneka zifike kwinkqubo yeQumrhu V lokulungisa; abahlali bomGaqo-siseko baphikisa ngokuthi inkqubo yokulungisa inzima kakhulu kwaye utoliko lwezahlulelo lungahlaziya ngokusemthethweni umGaqo-siseko.
  • [[FLT:]] Umgaqo-siseko ungajolise kugonyamelo lwemipu kunye nokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke. Kuhlaziyo lwesibini, abalandeli bembali baxhomekeke kubungqina bembali ukukhusela umntu ngamnye wasekunene ([] Heller]; abasebenzi bemithetho-siseko bangajolise kugonyamelo lwemipu kunye nokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke wonke. Ekuqhosheni, abalandeli besithethe basoloko befumana lungelo elinomgaqo-siseko ([[FLT:]4]]] Dobbs v. Jackson Amabhinqa aBandlaimpilo-ntle ), ngexesha oomgaqo-siseko besaphila ngokwembali befumene enye kwinkululeko ye 145 Kinneth Dementerveration ([FL:]] Roev[F]

Impikiswano Kwinkqubo Yezaphuli - mthetho

Uxinzeleleko phakathi kobukhomfa bobuQuqu kunye nokuhlala komGaqo-siseko lusebenza ngokucacileyo kumatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo kunye nokuqinisekiswa kwetyala. Abagwebi basoloko bethandabuza ngentanda-bulumko yabo yokutolika, kwaye uluntu lusoloko lujonga iNkundla ngesi silanga. Ukuqonda indlela intanda-bulumko nganye ezibumba ngayo izigqibo eziphawula ingqalelo kubalulekile ekuqondeni umthetho wezomgaqo-siseko waseMerika.

Iimpawu Zophawu Olubonisa Ukwahlula

I-diformation of Columbia v. Heller [2008] luloyiso oluqhelekileyo lwemvelaphi. IJaji Scalia, ibhalela abaninzi, ixhomekeke kakhulu kwimithombo engokwembali ukugqiba ukuba uLawulo lwesibini lukhusela umntu ukuba abe nesixhobo sokuzikhusela kwikhaya. Abagxeki, kuquka iJaji Breyer ephikisayo, baphikisa indlela ebhetyebhetyebhetyethekayo enokuthi ivumele imimiselo yemipu ukuba ihlangabezane neengxaki zokhuseleko zale mihla.

[[FLT:] [Umahluko .[FLT] [1973] [u-1973] kunye nokugqithisa kwayo kakhulu kwisigqibo soMgaqo-siseko ophilayo, u-Dobs v. Jackson Madobs's Health Organization [ [202] [202]) ubonise utshintsho. [UMGUNO]] [[FLT]] ubonwa ngokuba lisigqibo esiphilayo somGaqo-siseko, uqaphele ilungelo lokungaxelwa kwento. [[FLT] [iiiiiinte:6] [iiiiiiiiiiiiinkcukacha] [[FLT], ngokuchasene nohlaluko lwakuqala, ukungafumani sithethe esisuka embiko lwamalungelo okuzinzileyo nokubuyisela kumbandela. Imithetho yezo. Alto igxininisogno yemithetho egxininisograyo ukuba inyani imele inyani ibe inyani yo

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), eyamkela ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko kumtshato ofanayo wobudlelane, sisigqibo esingundoqo somGaqo-siseko esiphilayo. Uluvo lukaMphathi Kennedy lwabiza ukhuseleko lweSinyuso seshumi Elinambini leSiphengululo, iphikisa into yokuba umtshato lilungelo elisisiseko eliguqukayo nebutho labantu. Abaqululeki bemithetho-siseko uScialia kunye noJaji uThomas baphikisa, betyhola uninzi lokuphinda umva umGaqo-siseko ngaphandle kombhalo okanye isiseko sembali.

Ukusetyenziswa kobubhali ngqangi kwiimeko zakutshanje, iCornell Legal Information Institute inikezela ngoqwalaselo oluluncedo.

Iingxaki Enkundleni

Inkundla ePhakamileyo yanamhlanje iquka amaQumrhu athenjiweyo akwiziqalo zoqobo aliqela (iThomas, iGorfoth, iBarrett, i-Alito) nabanye abaxhomekeke kubomi bomGaqo-siseko (Sotoyor, Kagan, Jackson, kunye nangamanye amaxesha iJaji enkulu yoLwiso-mthetho uRoberts). Kodwa amatyala akasoloko evota ngokugqibeleleyo ngolungelelwaniso nentanda-bulumko yabo echaziwe. Ucango oluqhelekileyo, ukujongisisa imigca. Noko ke, imfazwe yobulumko phakathi kwezi zikolo zimbi ezimbini iyaqhubeka ibumba iimbono, i-Promensions, kunye neziphikisa.

Izixakekiso Zomthetho WaseMerika

Ukhetho phakathi kobuNtu kunye nomGaqo-siseko ophilayo luneziphumo ezifikelela kude phantse kuyo yonke imimandla yomthetho-siseko. Le mimandla ilandelayo ibonisa indlela intanda-bulumko nganye enokuvelisa ngayo iziphumo ezahlukahlukeneyo.

Amalungelo asekuhlaleni nokhuseleko olulinganayo

Abathathi nxaxheba baphikisa ngokuthi iNkqutyana elinganayo ye 144 yeSinyuko sika-Exchange kaClaus mayisetyenziswe njengoko abaxhasi bayo bekuqondayo ngo1868, okungaquki ukukhuselwa kocalulo lwesondo, umzekelo. Abaxhasi abaninzi abaphilayo bemithetho-siseko, noko ke, baphikisa ukuba umgaqo wokulingana uvele walela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwisini, imbonakalo yesondo, kunye nokuzichaza ngokwesini. Izigqibo zeNkuhlalo zeNkulelo zeNkundla [[FLT:] [200] [200] [196] [196] [i-196] (i-ekungavumelani nje kuphela eVMI) kunye [FLT] kunye [[FLT]] ne-[2] i-fleast projectivestionsss yolution (iNt) ekhoyo, i-AFogronsolavences. isenokungalungela i-Ethenjiso i-yodwa kweyenzipho yasekuqaleni, i-Etheneyoku, i-

Imfihlo Ne-autonomy Esetyenziswa Ngasese

Ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuzimela, elisekelwe kwizigqibo zokuthintela ukukhawula (Griswold v. Connecticut[[FT:1]]), ukuqhomfa ([ Roe[), kunye nolwalamano olufanayo lwezobuhlanga ([] LYN].Texas, ubukhulu becala yimveliso yokucinga okuphilayo komgaqo-siseko wesiseko. Abaqululeki bayayikhabayo into ebanzi, engabhalwanga kwimfihlo, baphikisa ukuba amalungelo omthetho-siseko akhusele kuphela amalungelo aqululwe okanye akhuselwe ngokunzulu kwimbali. [FLT] [FLT] [FFT] [FLT]] isigqibo sobugqaliselo lomthetho-siseko sibonakalisa ukurhoxina, okuthetha ukuba angenzi kuthethwe ukuba akwangalunyuso kuba kugwebo oluqhelekileyo, xa kuthe ukuphumayo, iziphumo eziphumayo, eziphumayo

Amalungelo emipu nokhuseleko loluntu

[[FLT: 0]] I-Heller kunye nemeko zesibini zoHlaziyo ([FLT: 2]] McD [[FLT]]] Mdolophu yeChicago, iNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen[FLT]]] [[FLT]]]) ibonisa ulawulo loqobo lwemipu kulo mmandla. Isigqibo se Bruen sifuna imithetho yemipu ukuvumelana nezithethe zembali zomda wemipu, uvavanyo lwemeko ekwimbali. Abaphinikazi bomthetho-siseko baphikisa ukuba oku kujongena oku zizinto ezifana nobunzima basedolobheni, ukudubula, ukudubula okuphambili. Impompompoza eqhubekayo kuqhubekeyo ukuvavanisa imiqathango yemipu ekhoyo ngexesha elimisiweyo.

Amandla Omanyano Nokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Ubuqaqoqela busoloko buxhasa imbono encinane yamandla karhulumente, isalatha iBhunga elibaliweyo lamandla alo kwaye inyanzelisa ukwahlulwa ngamandla. IRehnquist ne Roberts Courts ziye zasebenzisa ingqiqo yokuqala ukubetha iinkalo zezenzo zobuGqirha obuChasanayo naMantokazi ([] iUnited States-v. Morrison]) kunye nomthetho we-Afford Cance's Médicad's (NFIB v. Sebelius). Abalawuli bomgaqo-siseko bathanda ukuvumela igunya elibanzi phantsi korhwebo no-Fathermalcerence, ingakumbi kwiingxaki zezoqoqosho okanye ingcungcungcungcung. Ingcungela-ograclates process processs provicesssssss providials.

Ukutyhalela Phantsi Nokuxinana

Nangona isoloko iboniswa njengeyahlukileyo, inkcazo yomthetho-siseko kunye nomthetho-siseko ophilayo ayisoloko inxunguphalisa. Abanye abaphengululi baphikisa ngelithi “indlela yokuphila yasekuqaleni” inokwenzeka: intsingiselo yantlandlolo yamabinzana afana no-“culcial kunye nengaqhelekanga” ingavumela izicelo ezidityanisiweyo. Umzekelo, i-Seth Amendmenting Reformation iqonde ukuba imiyalelo yokuzigweba eyayikhohlakele ngo1791, kodwa indlela yokumisa inkohlakalo ingaxhomekeka kwimilinganiselo yangoku ngaphandle kokutshintsha umgaqo wantlandlo. IJaji Scalia ngokwayo iyavuma ukuba intsingiselo yantland ayiqalisanga ncam imfuneko; ichaza kuphela intsingiselo ye-semantic text. Ngokufanayo, abalawuli bemithetho ephilayo banokudibanisa ukuqonda xa bechaza amagama abanzi. [FLD:]

Ngaphezu koko, zombini iintanda-bulumko ziyabelana ngesivumelwano somGaqo-siseko njengomthetho onyanzelisayo, kwaye zombini zithi zinika uhlolo-mthetho olusemthethweni. Ukungavumelani kuxhomekeke kwindlela yokuqinisekisa nokusebenzisa loo mthetho. Ngokuqhelisa, izigwebo ezininzi zisebenzisa zombini ezi zithethe kuxhomekeke kwimeko, zivelise ukugqwetha okungaguquguqukiyo okungacaciyo. Ingongoma ebalulekileyo kukuba ukucaciswa komgaqo-siseko ngokungenakuphepheka kubandakanya umgwebo, kunye nokukhethwa kwendlela yokuyila indlela osetyenziswa ngayo lo mgwebo.

Isiphelo

Ulwalamano phakathi kobuGaqo-siseko obukhoyo kunye nengcamango yemiGaqo-siseko ephilayo ayiyonkqayi nje; yimpazamo engundoqo kumthetho womgaqo-siseko waseMelika. Inkqubano yoqobo inika ukuzinza, ukuphendula ngokwedemokhrasi, kunye nokunxulumene nenkqubo yoMgaqo-siseko ophilayo, ngoxa umGaqo-siseko unika ubulula, ukuvumelana, kunye nenkqubo yokuthetha ngokungekho sikweni kunye nemigaqo etshintshayo. Ezi ndlela zombini zokuthetha ngemithetho yeNkundlalo ePhakamileyo zichaphazele imigaqo yemihla ngemihla yezigidi zezigidi (//invovom, amalungelo okuzala, umtshato, imfihlolo, kunye namandla orhulumente. Njengokuba uhlanga luqhubeka lufunda uxwebhu lwalo, ngoko ke luya kuqalishwa ngendlela yokufunda ukwenziwa ngayo. Ukuqonda ezi ncukutshintsha kolwazi lwezizo zobuGawula-mthetho, abafundi, kwabafundi, kunye neengcali zezomthetho ukubandakanye imbambano ehlalayo namhlanje.

Ukufundwa okubhekele phaya kobuGaqaba, bona i-Origalism Blog; uluvo oluphilayo lomgaqo-siseko, Brennan Center yeJaji[ inika ugcino-lwazi olufikelelekayo. Ingxoxo ikude ekuzinzisweni, kwaye isizukulwana ngasinye kufuneka sixhathise ngendlela engcono yokubeka ngayo umbhalo nemigaqo yezomGaqo-siseko xa silawula i-riphabliki eyahlukeneyo nenamandla.