Oko Kukuko Umanyano Nesizathu Sokuba Kubalulekile

Umanyano lululwahlulo lomgaqo-siseko lwamandla phakathi korhulumente ophakathi (wesizwe) norhulumente wengingqi (wesizwe). EUnited States, esi sakhiwo asingolawulo kuphela.=sisakhiwo sobuchule esilungiselelwe ukukhusela ukuxinezeleka kwamandla ngeli lixa livumela amazwe ukuba asebenze njengeeklasi zedemokhrasi. Ukuqonda ulawulo lolawulo-mthetho kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela ulawulo lwamaMelika olusebenza ngayo kulo lonke umgangatho, ukusuka kwigumbi leklasi ukuya kwiBhunga, nendlela abemi abasebenza ngayo norhulumente wabo ngesiseko semihla ngemihla. Ulungelelwano phakathi kwegunya lorhulumente kunye norhulumente luyilo olulungelelanisa ngayo yonke into kwimigaqo yempilo kawonke ukuya kulwaphulo-mthetho, isenza ibe nye yemithetho yemithetho esebenzayo nemigaqo ephikisanayo.

Imvelaphi Yembali Yomanyano LwaseUnited States

Abalawuli bomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. bajongene nengxaki engundoqo: indlela yokwakha umanyano olomeleleyo ngokwaneleyo ukuba lusebenze ngokunempumelelo ngexesha lugcina inkululeko nolawulo lwamazwe ngamanye. Uxwebhu olulawulayo lwangaphambili, iArticles of Confederation[, yadala urhulumente obuthathaka ongenamandla okuhlawula irhafu, olawula urhwebo, okanye imithetho enyanzelisayo. Oku kwakhokelela kwisiphithiphithiphithi-phithi-phithi-phithi sezoqoqosho, iimpikiswano zoshishino, kunye nokungakwazi ukuphendula iingxaki ezinjengesiVukelo sikaShays. UmGaqo-siseko, ocelwe ngowe-1787, endaweni yale nkqubo ekhululekileyo yesizwe ebekwe ngurhulumente, elinganiselweyo kurhulumente wohlanga lonke lonke ulawulo lolawulo lolawulo loluntu, ngexesha elicwangciso lwezizwe.

Impikiswano edityanisiweyo phakathi ilungelelanisa uxwebhu lokugqibela. Irejistalis (eye yaxhasa umGaqo-siseko) kunye ne-Antiti-FEderalist [ (obesoyika ubuzwilakhe obusembindini) yabumba uxwebhu. I-Federalist ``Apaperlist''' qha, i-kakhulukazi' [[[FLT] izakukhusela interbaast'ekhohlo ncam engcono nxamnye nokuxhatshazwa kwegunya. [[FLT] kunye nemithetho elungele ukusetyenziswa ngokucotha kwegunya lombuso:[5] [5] [5] [5] [5] [iiindawo ekwalathiwe, okanye i-Gwaluneli ye-Gwaral, ephuma kumazwe amanani ahlukeneyo, okanye athelela amagunya athelela amagunya athe athe athe athe athe alo, a

Amalungiselelo angundoqo omgaqo-siseko achaza umanyano

Enikwe Intsebenziswano, Esetyenziswa, Namandla Agciniweyo

UMgaqo-siseko umisela isakhiwo samandla aqiniswayo amathathu. ngalawo adweliswe ngokucacileyo kwinqaku I, Icandelo 8, kuquka amandla engqekembe yemali, ukubhengeza imfazwe, ukulawula urhwebo lwamazwe, nokumisela ii-ofisi zamandla eposi. agunya asebenzayo afumaneka ukusuka kwi-Indice kunye ne Medicine Claus (Icandelo le-S, I, iSiqendu sika-Classia, inika iBhunga ukuba lenze yonke imithetho yenze “imfuneko nefanelekileyo yokucanda kwayo." ngokukhupha amagunya ayo. [[FLT]] olu xwebhu lusekelwe kumthetho omthetho omthetho omthetho-mthetho-omatiko, ukusuka ekudalweni kwe-oomasebe besizwe ukuya ku-RGracrackiaracleaul.

Amandla agciniweyo angamalungu akhethekileyo kumazwana. Ezi ziquka igunya lokuqhuba unyulo, ukulawula urhwebo lwengingqi, ukuseka oorhulumente basekuhlaleni, nokulawula impilo nokhuseleko loluntu. [ IsiHlanziso-Mpanzi-Mthethweni [ sindawo yokugcina ezi zinto zigciniweyo, ukuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wesizwe akanakukwazi ukuthatha imisebenzi yorhulumente ngaphandle komyalelo ocacileyo womgaqo-siseko.

Amandla Akhoyo NoNoklas Oneengcungela

Amanye amagunya ahlanganyelwa ngoorhulumente besizwe noorhulumente. La akhoyo aquka ukukwazi ukuhlawula irhafu, ukuboleka imali, ukuseka iinkundla, nokunyanzelisa imithetho. Xa imithetho yesizwe neyorhulumente ingquzulana, iinkundla zetyala [ u-Claus [iiiiindawo] (i-Atecle VI, Clauslee 2) imisa ukuba uMgaqo-siseko, imimiselo yomthetho yorhulumente, kunye nezivumelwano “zinguMthetho wezwe." Oku kuthetha ukuba iinkundla zelizwe zibotshwe ngumthetho karhulumente, ukuba zichasana okanye imimiselo. Ityala eliphakamileyo [FLT]MCLCL.[19] [iT] [19]]

Ukholo Olupheleleyo Nozulelo Nolwalamano Lobudlelane

Inqaku le-IV loMgaqo-siseko liquka amalungiselelo adibanisa amaphondo adibeneyo njengohlanga olunye. Ukholo olupheleleyo noCertive Claus lifuna amazwe okuhlonela izenzo zikawonke-wonke, iirekhodi, kunye neenkqubo zomthetho zamagunya. [[FLT:] Priveles] kunye ne-Immunions Claus [[FLT:] u-Fathermastial uthintela ukuba amazwe angahluleki abemi bamanye amazwe kumalungelo asisiseko. u-Extradicted Claus ugunyaziso olusuka kokusesikweni abuyiselwe kwimeko apho ulwaphulo-mthetho lwesizwe lwenze khona. Ezi zidipozi zibangela ulawulo lomthetho lwesizwe lugcinwe kumthetho lwe-gromaggggn.

Indaleko Yomanyano: Ukusuka Kwindawo Yokuhlanganisana Ukuya Kukuququqela

Dual Federalism (1789-1930s)

Kwimbali enkulu yaseMerika, urhulumente wasebenza phantsi kwemodeli ye- “lealuminier kheki”. Urhulumente wesizwe wasingatha imicimbi yesizwe ye-(war, imicimbi yamazwe asemzini, intengiselwano yezorhwebo) kunye nezorhwebo. Ngeli xesha amazwe alawula imicimbi yasekuhlaleni njengemfundo, imithetho yomtshato, kunye namalungelo empahla. Eli xesha, elaziwa ngokuba [ urhulumente , ephawulwa yimigca ecacileyo yegunya lesizwe. Inkundla ephakamileyo yayisoloko ikhusela ulawulo, ihlasela imithetho yesizwe eyahlula amagunya. Umzekelo, . C. CoLT.[FLD] [F:95] [185], iNkulawula inkundla eyayingahambiselani kwezoshishino, i-othenti yegunya.

Imanyano (1930s-1970)

Umgangatho ophezulu woHlomelo noMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal wasusa ulwanyo. Urhulumente waqalisa ukunikezela ngezipho-ngaphakathi kumazwe ukuze kubekho intlalo-ntle, izibonelelo, kunye nomsebenzi, ukwenza “ikeyiki enoburhulumente” apho iimbopheleleko zaxutywa khona zaza zahlulwa. Eli xesha labona unyuko lweNkundla ePhakamileyo [[FLL:0] NLB v. Jones & Laughlin Sel Corp. [197]) luvumela ulawulo olubanzi lwemisebenzi yezoqoqosho phantsi korhwebo. Eli xesha lakubona ukwanda kwamandla karhulumente kwiinkqubo ezifana nokhuseleko lwezentlalo, uMidi, kunye nokuxhaswa kwemali egrabhusayithi. EUnited States yaba ngamaqabane ekwaneenkqubo esizwe, kunye nemali edityaniswe nemali.

IFederalism Entsha (1970s/Presente)

Ekuphenduleni ekukhuleni kwegunya likarhulumente, uMongameli Richard Nixon noRonald Reagan baxhasa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeSigqeba uWilliam Rehnquist ijolise kwigunya nembopheleleko kumazwe. Oku kwakuquka ukwabelana ngemali, izithintelo, kunye nokuthintela. Inkundla ePhakamileyo phantsi kweSigqeba soMasipala William Rehnquist kwiimeko ezininzi, ezifana neUnited States v. Lopez [19595], eyathimba phantsi kweMida yeSikolo seSikhulu soMfun, isenza i-Angcelo yorhwebo engaphezulu kakhulu, kunye [FLT] v.[FLT]

Umanyano kwiNdlela: Ummandla wemiba emithathu

Impilo

Umthetho wandisa iMedicaid, kodwa kamva isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwi [[FLT:]] I-AFfordble Cares v. Sebelius ka-20202 ubonise ukuthatha inxaxheba kwegunya lorhulumente nombuso. Ngokweziphumo, amanye amazwe andisa uMdicaid ngexesha amanye engakhange abangele ukungavisisani okucacileyo kwintelekelelo ye-inshorensi yempilo. I-ASAP yaseka yasungula ii-inshorensi zempilo, kodwa amazwe amaninzi akhetha ukuzilawula zombini iintengiso. Lo msebenzi ubonakalisa ukutshintsha koomatshini kunye nokungalingani kwe-mali kwe-Medom.

Imfundo

Nangona kukho iSebe lemfundo eUnited States, inkqubo yemfundo ingurhulumente kunye nowasekuhlaleni. Ama-odolo amisela imigangatho yokufundisa, imfuno zokufundisa, kunye neenkqubo zemali.

Okusesikweni Kokwaphula Umthetho

Umthetho wezaphuli-mthetho ngumsebenzi ophambili. Umthetho worhulumente uchaza uninzi lolwaphulo-mthetho, ukunyanzeliswa kwamapolisa, kunye neenkundla zikarhulumente zokumangalela abenzi bolwaphulo-mthetho. Urhulumente ugxininisa kulwaphulo-mthetho olunqamlezileyo lwe-"%onsula, ukuthengiswa kweziyobisi, ubugrogrisi, kunye nokuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu. Noko ke, imigca ayicacanga. Umzekelo, ukuchanabeka kukarhulumente wesizwe kumyansi/a Ijiyo Ingeniso phantsi koMthetho we-Substancess Act. /Ijimey I-morion ebambenelwa ngokwasemthethweni ulwaphulo-mthetho oye wagunyaze unyango okanye i-mnabibis. ISebe loLungcelo loLungcelo libala izinto eziphambili phantsi kolawulo olwahlukeneyo lwezomthetho lorhulumente lubala urhulumente lubangela ukunganyaniseki kolu buchule nokungaqinisekiselwa kwabemi kunye namashishini.

IFederalism: Grants, Mandaday, kunye neMitya

Ulwalamano lwamazwe ahlukeneyo namhlanje lungummeli ngemali. iFiscalism ibhekisele ekusetyenzisweni kwemali enikwa urhulumente ukuphembelela inkqubo. Izibonelelo zemali [[[FLT:] [iii].unity Development Grans] [iiindlela engu-(umz.g.], yokwakha isikolo sekhefu okanye isikolo sasemini) ivela neemeko ezingqongqo kwindlela imali esetyenziswa ngayo. [[FLT: 4.] [iiimfuno zemali] inika ingxeba edityaniswe kakhulu [[FLT:] (um: 5,g., i-sombululo , i-Manumment Develoption [5]) kodwa ithetha ngoncedo lwemali eninzi, kodwa umthetho okhethekileyo woncedo oluqhelekileyo, u-ManFLT]

Ngexesha lesifo se-COVID-19, urhulumente wesizwe waqalisa ukubeka phambili. Urhulumente worhulumente wanika izigidi-zigidi zoncedo kumazwe kunye nabantu ngabanye ngeCareS Act nangeSicwangciso sokuhlangula saseMerika, udibanisa iimeko ukuze kuxhaswe imfundo neenzuzo zokungaqeshwa. Amanye amaphondo asebenzisa imali ukuphendula iimfuno zebhabhabhazabhathi; amanye athetha oko akubona ukuba kuphenjelelwa ngurhulumente. Eli ngxaki labonisa ukuba kukho imfuneko yoovimba besizwe kunye noxanduva olubangelwa yimali exhomekeke kwimibandela ethile.

Ucelomngeni Nempikiswano Zangoku

Urhulumente v. Igunya lomanyano kwiiNkundla zaMaphupho aHotān

Impikiswano enjengokufuduka, ukuqhomfa, nokulawula imida ye-operalism ngokuphindaphindiweyo. Ariman v. United States (2012], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabetha iinxalenye eziphambili ze-SB, ukufuduka, ukuphatha umthetho we-Rofficess, ophethe lo mthetho wezwe wombuso wokufuduka ukhubaza imigudu karhulumente. [[FLT:]]] [FLT]]] Dobts v. Jackson of Health Organization [2022]]] inkundla yezomthetho ye-SQumrhula irhoxile [FL:] Roe. Wade v[FLT] [5] ubuyisela umthetho wokuqhomfayo, ukuvelisa imithetho engqubanayo. Imiqobo ye-Gromo-gum iye yabona imo imo i-osamele ukuba ivune ivune ivune ityala elingo yezomthetho elingongongongongo yezo elingulo kodwa ibonise

Ukulingana nokufikelela ngaphaya kwama-Ecustom

Umanyano lungavelisa umahluko obalulekileyo. Abemi belizwe abaneenkqubo zoluntu eziphanayo banganandipha intelekelelo yeMedicaid, ikhefu elihlawulwa yentsapho, okanye inkxaso ephezulu efunyanwa ngabahlali bezinye iindawo abangenayo. Ngokwahlukileyo koko, amatyala okungalawulekiyo anokutsala amashishini kodwa ashiye abasebenzi okanye abathengi besengozini. I-COVID-19 ebalaselisa le ngxaki: iziphumo zenkqubo yonyango ezinamandla zisebenza ngcono kunaleyo ingekho, kunye nokufikelela kwimichiza kunye nokuvavanya iinguqu ezininzi.

Ukugqalwa Njengokwahlukileyo Kwezobupolitika Nomanyano

Njengoko amaqela amabini amakhulu enziwe alungelelaniswe ngakumbi ngokweengcamango, urhulumente uyakwazi ukuvelisa ungcoliso lwemeko-bume. Amaphondo abomvu kunye namaphondo aluhlaza adlulisela imithetho engqubanayo kutshintsho lwemozulu, amalungelo okuvota, kunye neengxaki zentlalo, ukukhuthaza inkcubeko kunye nokulawula. Oku kunamandla maxa wambi kukhokelela ekunqamleziseni iimfazwe zamazwe, njengaxa amazwe athe athe ajonge abamelwane ngokuchasana nongcoliseko okanye xa abalawuli bengavumi ukungxwa ngaphandle kwetyala kwamanye amazwe. Umanyano lwesizwe lukwanceda ukuchasa umgangatho wemithetho yesizwe, njengoko kubonwa “imigudu yokwandisa imimandla yemipu kunye nokugcinwa kwemipu.

Ikamva Lomanyano

Ulawulo lobuxhakaxhaka kunye nolawulo lwamanani

I-Internet kunye nemeko-zoqoqosho zizisa imingeni emitsha yolawulo lorhulumente. Ugcino-lwazi, umzekelo, luyimisebenzi yecandelo yomgangatho karhulumente: California’s Consumerfic Act (CCPA) lungqongqo kunemithetho yorhulumente, kwaye amanye amazwe amkela imithetho efanayo. Ukungakho komthetho wemfihlo karhulumente wengingqi yengilifa kuthetha ukuba amashishini afanele ahambe ngemimiselo e-Elshortus e-e. Kwangaxesha linye, i-Corcioce arguay inika igunya leBhunga ukulawula i-eglokhwe yesizwe, kodwa i-protrogn ayithintele inkqubo efanayo. Indlela urhulumente aqhela ngayo inkqubo yezoshishino yezoqoqosho kufuneka alungelene ukulawula urhulumente karhulumente kamashumi eminyaka.

Ukutshintsha Kwemozulu Nentsebenziswano Yokusingqongileyo

Inkqubo yokusingqongileyo yenye ibala apho kuphikiswana khona iindima zikarhulumente norhulumente. I-Ceather Air and Clean Water Act imisela imigaqo karhulumente, kodwa i-odolian, enesithinteli esikhethekileyo phantsi koMthetho, imisela imilinganiselo yayo yokukhupha izithuthi ngezantsi, kwaye imisela imilinganiselo yokuzimela enokuthi amanye amazwe ayenze. Xa urhulumente uqengqelela imithetho yemekobume, uthetha ukuba ungenele njengeKhalifoniya neNew York ngemithetho enzima. Ngokuphikisana noko, iingxaki zongcoliso-moya (umz., ukunqumla kwemigca ye-ntluntlukwano yesizwe) kufuneka ulungelelwano lwemozulu. Ngenxa yokutshintsha kwehlabathi kunye ne-66, ukuqulungela phambili kwemithetho yesizwe, kodwa i-octiveactive ihlala ibalulekile.

Intshukumo yoNtlalo kunye namandla oMmandla

Umanyano lwesizwe ludala amanqaku amaninzi oxinzelelo kutshintsho lwentlalo. Iinkampani zingaxhasa umgangatho wasekuhlaleni, ziphumelele kwiindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente, zize zinyanzelise ukunyulwa kwesizwe. Umanyano lomtshato, umzekelo, lwaqalisa ngemithetho yenkundla yenkundla kunye nezenzo zowiso-mthetho phambi kweNkundla ePhakamileyo Obergefell v. Hodges isigqibo esifunekayo kwilizwe lonke. Ngokunjalo, ukuxhasa ulungiso lwezomthetho, unyuso oluncinane, kunye namalungelo okuvota asoloko esebenza ngokwesigunya lika- naa umvalo lokwenza utshintsho olukhawulo okanye uvavanyo oluqhelekileyo.

Isiphelo

Umanyano lwamazwe lusaqhubeka luzinzile. Ukuqonda imfuneko yomanyano lwesizwe neengenelo zenkululeko yommandla. Kusukela kwimvelaphi yalo kuxanduva lwabaseki ukuya kumabala angoku kwinkcubeko yempilo, imfundo, kunye nomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, ulwahlulo lwamandla phakathi korhulumente norhulumente, kuya kuqhubeka kusenziwa. Ukuqonda ukuba ulawulo lorhulumente luthetha ukuqaphela ukuba ulawulo lwe-U.S. akunanto iphakathi okanye isidima esipheleleyo kwaye akunanto ingumsebenzi onamandla, isoloko ikho imingeni-luko lwe-othemili ye-orhulumente. Njengoko iingxaki ezintsha zivela kubugcisa, ukutshintsha kwemozulu, kunye nokutshintsha kwemigaqo yezobupolitika, iza kuvavanywa, kodwa ukuqina kwayo kucebisa ukuba inkqubo yoMquluko inikwe kakhulu. Kubafundi, abafundisa kunye nabemi belizwe, abahlala begunyazwe ngokubandakanyelwa kwilizwe eliqhubeke.