Ukulingana kungqineke kufanelekile njengesiseko solawulo-bume lwale mihla, kodwa ukuguqulelwa kwayo kwinkqubo kusasoloko kuphikiswana ngokukrakra. Zimbalwa iinkqubo ezibonisa olu xinezeleko ngokucacileyo kunokuvuma isenzo .--"program zenzelwe ukusingatha ucalulo oludlulileyo ngokuwandisa ngokunelisa amathuba amaqela akwimbali. Iimfazwe ezingokwasemthethweni ezikufutshane nokuvuma zibumbe kungekuphela nje ukuvuma nokuqeshwa kodwa kwanokuqonda okubanzi oko kufunayo. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa imigaqo esemthethweni elawula ukuvuma kwesenzo sobuhlanga eUnited States nakwamanye amazwe, likhupha iimpikiswano eziphambili zemithetho enjalo, kwaye lihlola iindlela ezinokuvela ezinokusetyenziswa komnye umntu nemiyalelo yexesha elizayo.

Isiseko Somgangatho Embalini

Imvelaphi yentanda-bulumko yeengcamango zokulingana zale mihla ibuyela emva ekukhanyiselweni. Abacingisisi abafana noJohn Locke baphikisa amalungelo emvelo azuzwe kubo bonke abantu, lo gama uJean-Jacques Rousseau waphikisa ngelithi ukungalingani kwentlalo kusenokugwetyelwa kuphela xa enceda wonke umntu. Isindululo seMerika senkululeko savakalisa ukuba "wonke amadoda adalwe ngokulinganayo," kodwa ababhali bolu xwebhu bawakhupha kakhulu amabhinqa kunye nabantu abakhotyokisiweyo kweso sithembiso. Kwathatha iinkulungwane ezininzi zemfazwe, imibutho yamabhinqa, imibutho yokusebenza, kunye nemithetho yamalungelo abantu esemthethweni yokwandisa ingcaciso ekufanele ukusetyenziswa.

Phakathi kwenkulungwane yama-620 kwaphawulwa ukuhlahlela. Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (54) yaphelisa ukuhlahlela izikolo, yala ulwahlulo "oludityanisiweyo kodwa olulinganayo". UMthetho wamaLungelo we-Civil Amalungelo owe-1946 obelwa phantsi kocalulo olusemthethweni kwizindlu zikawonke-wonke, umsebenzi, kunye neenkqubo ezixhaswa ngurhulumente. ISihlomelo VII sesenzo sokuphelisa ucalucalulo lwemisebenzi olusekelwe kuhlanga, imibala, unqulo, imvelaphi yesizwe. Kodwa kwangoko sathi shwaba ngokucacileyo ukuphelisa nje ucalucalulo olusemthethweni alwanele ukuphelisa iinkulungwane zemeko ezingekho semthethweni. UMongameli uLydon B. uJohnson wafumana olu lwakhenke ulwazi kwiNyuvesithi kaHowardwarder, echaza ukuba "awuthathangathathi, iminyaka emininzi, ubuhlolo, ubunokumnyusela ngezenzo zezo zezopolitiko."

Ukuqalisa Kwesenzo Sokuziqinisekisa EUnited States

Igama elithi "isenzo sokuqinisekisa" lavela okokuqala kuMyalelo woLawulo oluPhezulu 11246, eyatyikitywa nguMongameli Johnson ngo1964. Lo myalelo wafuna ukuba izalathisi zesizwe zime "zithathe isenzo sokwala uhanjiso" ukuqinisekisa ukuba abafaki-zicelo nabaqeshwa baphathwa ngaphandle kohlanga, umbala, unqulo, isini, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe. Amandla enkqenkqeza phambili abekwa kwi-ofisi yeFederal Contracct Compaliance Programs. Kumashumi eminyaka alandelayo, ukuvuma ukunyuselwa kwizifundo eziphezulu, ukukhutshwa koogosa, ukukhutshwa korhulumente, kunye neenzamezo zobuzwe.

Isakhiwo esisemthethweni esilawula ezi nkqubo sibunjwe kakhulu yiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ngenxa yokuba iinkalo ezisekelwe kwi-screen à projects zibangela ukuba kuqwalaselwe ngokungqongqo phantsi kwe-Unimetic Protection Claus of the 14neth Amend Amendment, uvumo lwemigaqo-nkqubo kufuneka luncede urhulumente afumane umdla kwaye lulungiselwe ukwenziwa okulula ukufikelela loo mdla.

Izigqibo Eziyintloko ZeNkundla Ephakamileyo

Amatyala aliqela aphawula izinto ezithile aye achaza umlinganiselo ovumelekileyo wokuvuma eUnited States:

  • Iinguqu zeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya v. Bakke [1988]. Kwisigqibo esahluliweyo, iNkundla yathi umlinganiselo wobuhlanga awumiselwanga ngokwesithethe kodwa uhlanga lungathathwa njengomnye unobangela phakathi kwabaninzi abangenileyo. Uluvo lukaJaji Lewis Powell lwachaza inzuzo yemfundo yolwahluka-hlukeneyo njengomdlalo onyanzelisayo.
  • Liyavumelana nabezomsebenzi bokugqibela. IWeber (1979): INkundla yaxhasa icebo lokuzithandela lokuvuma iindawo zoqeqesho ezinobuchule, ifumanise ukuba iSihloko VII asizange siwathintele amakhandlela okukhetha ngokuzenzekelayo xa icebo lalilelokwexeshana kwaye asizange siwathintele ngokungeyomfuneko amalungelo abasebenzi abamhlophe.
  • City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co. (1999): INkundla yabetha phantsi inkqubo ebekwe ecaleni kukamasipala yeenkomfa ezimbalwa, isebenzisa uhlalutyo olungqongqo nolufuna ubungqina bekhethe langaphambili phambi kokuba amayeza angazi nto asetyenziswe.
  • I-Grillinger v. Bollinger [2003]): INkundla yaqinisekisa kwakhona ukuba iiyantlukwano ngumdla onyanzelisayo kwimfundo ephezulu. Yaxhasa inkqubo yokuvuma kweMichigan Law School (eyithathele uluhlanga njenge "plugister fector" ngaphandle kokusebenzisa iinombolo `````''''' njengeemfuno ezimxinwa'' ezidityanisiweyo.
  • Gratz v. Bollinger (2003): yagqiba usuku olufanayo no iGrate, iNkundla yabetha phantsi kwiNyusa yophando oluphantsi kwe Michigan, eyabela ngokuzenzekelayo iincam kwizicelo ezisuka kumaqela e-awudians. Inkqubo eqinileyo, yomatshini ayizange idityaniswe ngokucuthayo.
  • Fisher v. IYunivesithi yaseTexas (203, 2016): INkundla yokuqala yathi iinkundla ezincinci azikhange zisebenzise uhlalutyo olungqongqo ngokwaneleyo. Ngokwahlukileyo, iNqanawa yesihlanu yaxhasa ucwangciso lweYunivesithi yaseTexas, kwaye kwakhona iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqinisekisa ukuba iingenelo zeyantlukwano zingaluthethelela ugqatso olungenazingxengxengelwayo (* ukuba iyunivesithi ayinakubonisa ukuba akukho misebenzi esetyenziswayo.[9]
  • Izigqibo ze Fair Adgistragins v. Harvard & UNC [2023]: Kwisigqibo esaguqula ngokunzulu umhlaba, iNkundla yagqiba ukuba uhlanga luxhasa inyathelo lokuvuma kwikholeji elilwamkelayo licaphula uKhuselo lwe-Celasme olulinganayo. Abaninzi bakholelwa ukuba ulwamkelo lwenkqubo eHarvard neYunivesithi yase North Carolina lungafumani ngeniso olufanelekileyo noluqwalaselweyo, lusebenzisa uhlanga njengelungu elingalunganga kwezinye iimeko, kwaye luhambisele phambili uqalo oluqhelekileyo lwezizwe. Umthetho uphela ngokunempumelelo malunga neminyaka engama-50 yesiqalo esivumela iiyunivesithi ukuqwalasela njengomba omnye kwimiqathango.

La matyala abonisa ukuxilonga kweNkundla imithetho engabonakaliyo yohlanga, ngesigqibo sowama-2023 esibonisa ukuguqukela ngokunzulu ekungabonini imibala. Lo mthetho awuwaleli amayunivesithi ukuba aqwalasele indlela ingxubevange echaphazela ngayo amava obomi bomntu ocela isicelo, ngokomzekelo, ngezincoko ezithetha ngokuphelisa ucalucalulo-calulo, kodwa ukrunca ukhuthulo njengonobangela wokuvunywa kwemizwa.

Iimpikiswano Kwingxoxo Enika Isiqinisekiso

Ingxoxo yokuvuma idla ngokuchazwa njengengquzulwano phakathi kwemibono emibini yokulingana: enye igxininisa okusesikweni nokufaneleka kwezithethe, enye ukulingana okungathethekiyo okuvuma imiqobo yenkqubo.

Imisebenzi Yesiqinisekiso

Abaxhasi banikela uthethelele oluninzi oluyintloko:

  • Isenzo sobulungisa sokwamkelwa: Isenzo esizinzileyo sithetha ngeziphumo eziqhubekayo zocalulo oludlulileyo. Ngenxa yokuba ucalulo lubangele iingxaki ezinyukayo kubutyebi, imfundo, kunye neentlalo , ukunqanda nje ucalulo lwexesha elizayo akuyi kusemgangathweni umdlalo wokudlala.
  • umahluko okhoyo: Kwimimiselo yemfundo, amagumbi eeklasi ahlukeneyo aphucula ukucingela, anciphisa ubalo, kwaye alungiselela abafundi imisebenzi edibeneyo. Inkundla yamkela ezi nzuzo njengomdla onyanzelayo.
  • Imifuziselo kunye nekomkhulu lentlalo: Umelo olukhulayo lwamaqela akhutshwe embalini kwimisebenzi nakwindawo zokhokelo lunika imizekelo yemodeli kwizizukulwana ezitsha kunye nokwandisa iinethwekhi ezingoonolwazi ezinokunceda ukuphelisa umjikelo wokungakhuseleki.
  • [[UMTL:0] Umthetho osemthethweni: amaqumrhu kawonke-wonke abonakalisa ubukho boluntu akhonza kulo anokufumana ukuthembana nokusesikweni okungakumbi.

Iimpikiswano Zesiqinisekiso

Abachasi baphakamisa iincopho ezininzi eziphikisayo:

  • ulwahlulo lohlanga:[ imigaqo-nkqubo yohlanga engaqondakaliyo ingaphazamisa abantu abangengawo amalungu amaqela ajoliswe kuwo, benokwaphula uKhuselo olulinganayo luka Claus.
  • I-Merit kunye nempumelelo: Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngokuthi ukuvuma isenzo kuthoba ukungafaneleki komsebenzi ngokunikwa umvuzo ngokusekelwe kumalungu kunokuba zimfaneleko zomntu ngamnye. Oku kunokukhokelela ekudibaniseni phakathi kwabafundi namaziko, kwenzakalisa loo nkqubo izimisele ukunceda.
  • Stigma: Abaneenjongo zokuvuma bangajongana namathandabuzo ngokufaneleka kwabo koontanga nabaqeshi, kwaye bangazenza ngokwabo amathandabuzo angaphakathi.
  • Uqulunqo lodidi lobuhlanga: Abanye abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi uvumo luqinisa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwaye luphikisa injongo yebutho elingabonakaliyo lombala.
  • Iziseko ezi-Alternal:[ Abachasi basoloko bexhasa udidi [1] ukuphenjelelwa kwesenzo sokuyekelela sodidi [1] okanye sentlalo yezoqoqosho, bephikisa ngelithi ukungafumani zoqoqosho kuchaza umahluko omkhulu kunohlanga kuphela.

Enye indlela Yokukhuthaza Ubulingani

Kwanangaphambi kwesigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo yama-2023, amanye amaziko aye aqalisa ukwenza uphando ngeminye imiba engekho mgaqweni ukuze afumane iinguqu. Ezi ziquka:

  • Uluhlu lwentlalo-ntle yezoqoqosho: Imisebenzi engekho mthethweni enjengeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya, eyavalwayo ekuqwalaseleni uhlanga ngeprocessition 209 ngonyaka we-19, iye yasungula iinkqubo ezibonisa ukukhetha abafundi abahlawulwayo abaphantsi kwe-244, abafundi bokuqala benzala ye-9 bakholeji, kunye nabafundi abasuka kwimimandla ehlwempuzekileyo.
  • Izicwangciso zentlalo-ntle: Amazwe aliqela, kuquka iTexas, iFlorida, kunye neKhalifoniya, aye amkela iinkqubo eziqinisekisa ukuvunywa kwabafundi abaphezulu kumazwe aphezulu kwisikolo samabanga aphakamileyo, qha, indlela yokuqhuba isikolo esinemigangatho engama-6, umgangatho wezoqoqosho nomahluko weentlanga.
  • Uhlolo lobuHlomelo ngaphandle kohlanga: Amaziko amaninzi ngoku aqeqesha amagosa angenileyo ukuvavanya indlela amava obomi obude obude (kuquka amava ocalucalulo) aye aguqula ngayo impumelelo neembono zawo, ngaphandle kokuqwalasela ngokucacileyo ukuba uhlanga lungunobangela.
  • Ukukhutshwa komngeniso kunye nokukhutshwa: ukwandisa umbhobho ngokufaka imali kwizikolo nakuluntu olunomlinganiselo ophezulu wabafundi abangeniswanga bangandisa iinguqu zezicelo ngaphandle kokhetho lohlanga (6) olungabonakaliyo.

Uphando oluphathelele ukuphumelela kwezi zinto zongezelelelo ludibene. Olunye uphando lufumanise ukuba ipesenti yecebo livelisa iiyantlukwano eziphakathi kodwa alikwazi ukuvuma ukuba kukho uhlanga olungenangqondo. Abanye bacebisa ukuba izinto ezikhethwayo kwintlalo nezoqoqosho zithatha inxalenye nje encinane yemigaqo-nkqubo yeentlanga engekho ngqiqweni.

Imbono Yamazwe Ngamazwe Ngesenzo Somgangatho Nesiqinisekisa

Isenzo sokuqinisekisa asingowaseMerika kuphela. Amazwe amaninzi aye amkela iinguqulelo zawo, ebonisa imbali nezithethe ezingokwasemthethweni.

UMzantsi Afrika

Emva kokuphela kocalucalulo, i-South Africa yamisela inkqubo yeMsebenzi Equaty Act ka-1998, efuna abaqeshi ukuba bamise amanyathelo okuvuma ukwenzela “amaqela atyunjwayo” "abantsundu, abamnyama, ama-Indiya, amabhinqa, kunye nabantu abaneziphene. IBroadÍbad Black Economic Exenialmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentmentment (BBEE) ikhupha imithetho ekwandiswa kwemfuno, ulawulo, ukuphuhliswa kobuchule, nokuthengwa kwemali. Inkundla yoMgaqo-siseko waseMzantsi Afrika ixhase lamaqela, iyavuma ukuba bathetha ngelifa lento yokwahlulo olucwangcisiweyo. Noko ke, abagxeki-BBE bathelela iklamswodwa kakhulu kwaye abangenwanga bafikelelangamahlwempu ngokwaneleyo.

I-India

Inkqubo ye-Indiya yokubekwa kwezithuba, egcinwe kuMgaqo-siseko we-1950, izihlalo ezigciniweyo kumaqumrhu emfundo kunye nemisebenzi karhulumente yeShedynard Castes (eyayifudula “ingachaphazeleki”), iShedynadyd Covotions, kunye nenye i-Frand Transad Cladenties. Inkqubo ibiphantsi kwelikhulu. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseIndiya inyanzelele ukuba “uphahla lwamphezulu” lungasasebenzi, ngaphandle kwabo bakwihlelo eligciniweyo abaphumele impumelelo yezoqoqosho. Le nkqubo ihlala imangalelwe, ngokuphikisa okuthile ukuba ikhuthaza ucalucalucalulo olungapheliyo.

I-Brazil

Ngo-2012, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseBrazil yaxhasa umlinganiselo wobuhlanga kwizikhululo zaseyunivesithi. Ngonyaka olandelayo, uMongameli uDilma Rousseff wasayina umthetho ofuna iiyunivesithi zikarhulumente ukuba zigcine ama-50% eeyunivesiti amkele abafundi abaphuma kwizikolo zikawonke wonke, kunye ne- 88quququotas yeBlack, exubeneyo, kunye nezicelo ze-Instrication ngokulingana nabemi bomthonyamaduzane. Indlela yokufikelela kwe-Brazil isebenzisa ngokucacileyo uhlanga kunye nemeko yentlalo yezoqoqosho kunye. Le nkqubo inyuse yandisa ukufikelela kubafundi abakwiminye i-Afroplaingradiaian Brazilians, nangona imibuzo ephathelene nokuphumelela nokulunga kwemiqatha kwenkqubo ye-Rotransty iyaqhubeka idio.

CanadaName

I-Orthow Equty Act yaseKhanada ka-1995 ifuna abaqeshi abalawulwa ngurhulumente ukuba baphucule ukumelelwa kwamaqela amane amiselweyo: amabhinqa, abantu belizwe labo, abantu abaneziphene, nabantu abancinane ababonakalayo. Ngokungafaniyo nenkqubo ye-U.S. Canada, inkqubo ayisebenzisi ii-odola; endaweni yoko, abaqeshi bamisela iinjongo kunye nemigaqo efana neyokuba nenkqubo yokuqeshwa. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseKhanada ixhase iinkqubo ezinjalo njengomlinganiselo ofanelekileyo wamalungelo alinganayo phantsi kweTretaster, beqonda ukuba ukulingana okungaphantsi kwemali maxa wambi kufuna unyango olwahlukileyo.

I-United Kingdom

UMthetho woMalungano ka-2010 uvumela “inyathelo eliqinisekileyo” kodwa walathise ngokucacileyo“ ucalucalulo.” Abaqeshi kunye neeyunivesithi zaseBritane bangathatha amanyathelo okukhuthaza izicelo ezivela kumaqela angaphantsi kwenkonzo, okanye ukunikezela ngoqeqesho okanye izibonelelo, kodwa abanakusebenzisa iiyunithi okanye benze izigqibo ngokubhekiselele kwiziseko zeempawu ezikhuselweyo. Umahluko phakathi kwesenzo esifanelekileyo kunye nocalucalulo olufanelekileyo unxulumene ngokusondeleyo namapolisa.

Ikamva Lomgangatho Nenyathelo Eliqinisekisayo

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-2023 eUnited States sitshintshe isazulu somxhuzulane kwingxoxo yokuvuma. Izenzo ezingeyonyaniso ziye zazama ukuhlaziya imigaqo-nkqubo yokuvuma, kwaye abanye abahlalutyi baxela ukwanda kwamanyathelo okuzinzisa okungavumelaniyo okuneenguqu ekuqeshweni nasekudibaneni. Kwangaxeshanye, isigqibo siye savuselela umdla kwiinkqubo ezingezinye: uncedo lwemali, ukwandisa imibhobho yoluntu, kunye nemigudu yokukhulula imiqobo yenkqubo yokuqala kwinkqubo yemfundo.

Izinto eziliqela zisenokutshintsha indlela esiphila ngayo:

  • Ucalulo: Abenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo baya baqonda ngokukhula ukuba ukungancedi nto asikokukhetha okukodwa. Uhlanga, udidi, ubufana, ukukhubazeka, kunye nezinye iiparafiki ezidityanisiweyo ukwenza imilinganiselo eyahlukileyo yokukhetha. Imigaqo-nkqubo yexesha elizayo ingajolisa ekujoliseni kwengxaki edityaniswe ngqo.
  • Ukufikelela kwe-Dataíven: Ngokulaliswa okucacileyo kohlanga, amaziko azakuxhomekeka kakhulu kuhlalutyo logcino-lwazi ukufumanisa imiqobo kwaye alinganise ukuphumelela kolunye uhlobo lwezinto ezingekho mgaqweni.
  • [[NTL:0] Iimpendulo zoluvo: Amanye amazwana angagqithisa imithetho efuna okanye enqanda ezinye iintlobo zokwenza ueyenzi. Kumgangatho wengingqi karhulumente, iKhomishini i-mendi yeSihloko VII okanye imisela imimiselo emitsha //irhintyela legridi le-atleklee alingazeki.
  • [[FLT: 0] uluvo lwePublic lutshintsha-tshintsha: Iingqumbo zibonisa ukuba amaMelika ahlukene, aneentloko ezixhasa isenzo sokulungela kumgaqo kodwa echasa ukusetyenziswa okukhethekileyo kohlanga kumavo avunyiweyo. Indlela intsingiselo yoluntu eguqula ichaphazela ngayo iindlela zobupolitika kunye nomthetho.
  • i-actlation? Imizekelo yezizwe ngezizwe ibonisa ukuba akukho mzekelo mnye wokuvuma oye wangqineka wanelisa ngokupheleleyo. Njengokuba amazwe efunda kwimpumelelo nokungaphumeleli komnye, singabona ukudibana kwemigaqo-nkqubo edityanisiweyo edibanisa uhlanga (6) olunentsingiselo nentlalo-ntlalo-ntle yezixhobo.

Ubungangamsha buhlala buyiprojekthi engagqitywanga. Isenzo sokuqinisekisa, kuzo zonke intlobo zaso, simele enye yezona zinto zingqalileyo − kwaye ukhuphiswano oluninzi luye lwaphikiswana ukuguqulela umgaqo wokulingana ekusebenzeni. Izicwangciso ezisemthethweni ezilawula le migaqo ziza kuqhubeka ziguqula, zibunjwe ziinkundla, iindlu zowiso-mthetho, kunye nabaxhasi abanyanzela imida yoko kufunwa kukulingana. Ukuqonda imbali, umthetho, kunye neempikiswano kuzo zonke iinkalo kuyimfuneko kuye nabani na obandakanyekileyo kumgudu oqhubekayo wokwakha amabutho apho amathuba avulekele wonke umntu.