Umsebenzi Weenkundla Kuluntu Olulawulwa Yidemokhrasi: Imbono Yemfundo

Iinkundla zisebenza njengesiseko sobulungisa kulo naliphi na ibutho lolawulo-mpukane, ziqinisekisa ukuba umthetho ulawula igunya lobuqu. Kubafundisi-lwazi nabafundi, ukuqonda indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo asiyonkqubo nje yemfundo kuphela, kusisiseko sobumi obunolwazi. Xa abemi bevili beyiqonda indima yejaji, bakulungele ngakumbi ukukhusela amalungelo abo, ukubandakanywa kobomi boluntu, nokugcina amaziko ebeke ityala. Eli nqaku linweba kwimisebenzi engundoqo, isakhiwo, kunye neengxaki zeenkundla zedemokhrasi, ngokubhekiselele kwimfundo ezizisa ubomi.

Indima Yeenkundla Kulawulo - melo

Kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi, iinkundla azingobalawuli abaphikisanayo; ngabagcini bomthetho-siseko. Iindima zazo eziphambili ziquka ukutolika imithetho, ukukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye, ukucombulula iimbambano, nokugcina ii-check kunye nolungelelwano. Ngamnye kule misebenzi uxhasa usukelo olubanzi lokuqinisekisa ukuba igunya likarhulumente lilinganiselwe kwaye wonke umntu ufumana ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho.

Ukutolika Imithetho

Iinkundla zitolika imimiselo, imimiselo, kunye nemimiselo esemthethweni, inika ukhokelo olunegunya kwintsingiselo yazo kunye nokusetyenziswa kwayo. Lo msebenzi wokutolika ubalulekile ngenxa yokuba imithetho isoloko ibhalwa ngamazwi aqhelekileyo afuna ukucaciswa ngokwemo-mongo. Umzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U. iNkundla ePhakamileyo ye-U. i-U.S. ilawula isigqibo se- Madison [18] [1] [1] imisela umgaqo wokuhlola ityala, inika iinkundla ukuchaza imithetho engekho sicatshululo. Ngoluvo olunjalo, ibumba umthetho ngamandla, ilungele ukutshintsha iimeko zentlalo ngexesha lokuhlala kumgaqo wolawulo-demokhrasi. Abefundisi banokubonisa le nkqubo ngokuhlola iimeko apho ukutolika kolawulo lweziko olubanzi, [FLD:2][3]

Ukukhusela Amalungelo

Iinkundla zimisela amaqumrhu ayintloko okukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye nolawulo lukarhulumente oluphakanyiswayo nocalulo lwangasese. Ziva amatyala abandakanya inkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yonqulo, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nokhuseleko olulinganayo. Xa amalungelo omntu ephulwa, iinkundla zinikela inkqubo yokukhusela. Ngokomzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.. iNkundla ePhakamileyo ePhakamileyo eLawula amalungelo [ii-Obergefelv v. i-. i-hodges[ [20] [15] iqwalaselwa umtshato omnye-oxtix-oxtives , ibonisa indlela iinkundla ezinokuwandisa ngayo ukhuseleko kumaqela ajongelwano. Kwimimiselo lwemfundo, ukuxubusha ngezi meko kunceda abafundi baqonde ukuba amalungelo angophiliyo ngesenzo somthetho. Abafundi bayakwazi ukuvalela ukuchanaba apho ukuchanaba iimkelo zomthetho.

Ukucombulula Iimpikiswano

Izigqibo zokungavumelani zingundoqo zisesona sigqibo sibonakalayo senkundla. Ukusuka kwimicimbi encinci kunye nentsapho ukuya kwimiba entsonkothileyo yezorhwebo, iinkundla zinika inkqubo ecwangcisiweyo, engenamkhethe yokucombulula iingxabano. Lo msebenzi ubalulekile ukuze kuqinisekiswe ugonyamelo lwabucala okanye ubungqwabalali. Iinkundla zikwakhuthaza ezinye iindlela zokuphikisana (ADR) njengesixhobo sokukhupha ulwazi kunye nokukhupha ityala, okunokuba negalelo elikhawulezileyo kwaye lingabi nasemva kokulungisa. Abafundisi bangalifanisa ityala elincinane lokuphulaphula inkundla ukuze babonise indlela iinkundla ezibuqwalasela ngayo ubungqina nokusebenzisa umthetho. Ukubalaka umngeni wetyala ophambili kubonisa indlela abemi abaqhelekileyo abathabatha inxaxheba ngayo ekudluliseleni isigwebo.

Ukulondoloza Iindlela Nolungelelwano

Uhlolo lwejaji------amandla okuphelisa izenzo zemithetho okanye zamasebe alawulayo, ``ikukuhlola okubalulekileyo igunya likarhulumente. Lo msebenzi uqinisekisa ukuba akukho sebe ligqitha igunya lalo lomgaqo-siseko okanye liqhekeze amalungelo alo. Umzekelo, iinkundla ziye zabetha imithetho ephazamisayo kwintetho ekhululekileyo okanye ezimisela isohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nengaqhelekanga. Ngokubeka amanye amasebe anokuphendula ngokusemthethweni, iinkundla zilondoloza ukwahlulwa kwamandla asisiseko kwidemokhrasi. Obafundisi- ntsapho bangasebenzisa imizekelo yanamhlanje, enjengemithetho yenkundla yegunya okanye i-regidifithi, ukubonakalisa lo mlinganiselo onamandla.

Ukubambelela Kumthetho

Ngaphandle kwamatyala akhethekileyo, iinkundla zifuzisela kwaye zinyanzelise umthetho ngezantsi, umgaqo wokuba bonke abantu kunye namaziko, kuquka norhulumente, baphantsi kwemigangatho efanayo yomthetho. Lo mgaqo usisiseko sokuxelwa kwangaphambili, okusesikweni, kunye nolungelelwano kwibutho labantu. Iinkundla ziqinisekisa ukuba imithetho isetyenziswa rhoqo kwaye akukho namnye ongaphezulu komthetho. Ubuncwane bemfundo obuvela kwimibutho efana neZiko loMthetho bunika izicwangciso ezintle zokuxubusha le ngcamango nabafundi.

Ukwakhiwa Kweenkundla

Uluntu lwedemokhrasi oluyinkqubo yolawulo-bume ilungelelanisa iinkundla zalo kwinkqubo yemigangatho emininzi ephethe iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zamatyala. Esi sakhiwo sivumela ukubhena nokuqinisekisa ukuba imibuzo entsonkothileyo engokwasemthethweni ingaphendulwa ziinkundla eziphezulu. Ukuqonda iqumrhu lemigangatho kunceda abemi bazi apho banokufuna khona uncedo nendlela amatyala aqhubekeka ngayo kwinkqubo.

Iinkundla Zasekuhlaleni Nezokuvavanya

Iinkundla zasekuhlaleni ```zisoloko zibizwa ngokuba ngumasipala, isithili, okanye inkundla yetyala elingephi.] Ziqhubana nolwaphulo-mthetho lwendlela, iingxelo ezincinane (ngokuqhelekileyo ngaphantsi kwamawaka ambalwa eedola), iimpazamo, kunye nokuchotshelwa kwangaphambili kwetyala elinzulu. Ezi nkundla zezona ndawo zifikelelekayo zokuqhagamshelana nabemi; abantu abaninzi baqala ukudibana nejaji kwiinkundla zeenqanawa okanye kwimida yemibutho. Iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zikwasingatha imiyalelo ekhuselekileyo kunye nemicimbi ekhoyo. Isantya nokungacwangciswangacwangciswanga, nokokubanako ukuphakamisa inkxalabo ngobulungisa, ngokukodwa ngenxa yokuzimela ngokwabo. Abaqeqeshi bayakwazi ukulungiselela uhambo lokuqala kwiinkundla zenkundla zasekuhlaleni ukuphawula imicimbi kunye nemicimbi yasekuhlaleni.

Iinkundla Zelizwe

Kumazwe anenkqubo karhulumente, inkundla yephondo okanye yephondo linegunya eliphangaleleyo kwimicimbi emininzi yolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nemicimbi yabemi equkunjelwa phantsi komthetho wesizwe. Asingatha umthetho weentsapho (i-divosi, i-propati), iimbambano zomntu ngamnye, ii-arhente zokonzakalisa, kunye netyala elinzulu lolwaphulo-mthetho (ityala). Urhulumente ngamnye unesakhiwo sakhe, ngokuqhelekileyo kuquka inkundla ephakathi yezokhupholo nenkundla ephakamileyo yezombuso. Iinkundla zelizwe zikwawutolika umgaqo-siseko wazo, onokuthi unikeze ukhuseleko olungaphezulu kunomgaqo-siseko worhulumente. Iziko lolwaphulo-mthetho lwezomthetho lwezomthetho lunikela inkcazelo ebanzi ngendlela ezisebenza ngayo ezi nkuwo inkundla ephakamileyo kunye neengxaki.

Iinkundla Ezimanyeneyo

Iinkundla zomanyano ezibandakanya imithetho karhulumente, umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., izivumelwano, kunye neembambano phakathi kwabemi bomazwe ahlukeneyo okanye phakathi kwabemi bomazwe ahlukeneyo. Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo iquka iinkundla zesithili (iinkundla zeenkundla zeenkundla zetyala), iinkundla zezibheno, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo. Iinkundla zorhulumente ezikhethekileyo zikho ngenxa yokubhaliswa kwamalungelo, irhafu, iintlawulo lwezizwe ngezizwe, kunye neemfuno zamava. Iinkundla zesizwe zibaluleke ngokukhethekile kwimibandela yesiseko somgaqo-siseko kunye neemfuno zesizwe. Ukufundisa abafundi ngemiqathango yenkundla engqungquthela edityanisiweyo ``inkundla ephakamileyo' nesahluzeneyongalo-`inkxaso yemidabiso

IiNkundla Eziphezulu

INkundla ePhakamileyo ekulawuleni ngezantsi. Nokuba yinkundla ephakamileyo okanye iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. isebenza njengomxhasi womthetho wokugqibela. Izigqibo zayo zidibanisa zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi kwaye isoloko imisela imizekelo ebumba ibutho labantu ngokwezizukulwana. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ikhetha ukuva kuphela inxalenye encinane yamatyala abekwe (malunga ne-1% yetyala eligqitha kwityala le-ceretari), igxininisa kwimiba yokubaluleka kwesizwe okanye icandelo. Inkqubo yokuqinisekisa ilungelelanisa imicimbi yezobupolitika engqongileyo, ibalase ukuxinzelela uxinezeleko phakathi kokuzimela nokuphendula. Abaqeqeshi bayakwazi ukuhlolisisa indlela iNkundla ephakamileyo ekwakhenkela ngayo izigqibo zayo, ngokusebenzisa izibonelelo ezifana [FL: 0] [FT:1]

IiNkundla zoLawulo ezizizo

Ukongeza kwiinkundla jikelele, ulawulo-melo ludla ngokuseka iinkundla ezikhethekileyo zobuchule nobuchule. Iinkundla zebhanki zisingatha amatyala ngokutsha; iinkundla zerhafu zicombulula iimbambano ngemithetho yengeniso; iinkundla zemisebenzi ezimathelelana ngemisebenzi; kwaye amasebe olawulo anemibutho yawo enxulumene nemigaqo-nkqubo yeNtlalo-ntle yokhuseleko loluntu (umz. Ezi ziququzelela-gosa-tyala elihambayo kodwa ziphakamisa nemibuzo ngenkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nolawulo logwebo. Ukuqonda okubanzi kwesakhiwo sejajiko lolawulo kubandakanya ukuqondwa kwezi ndawo zichasene nezo.

Ukubaluleka Kwenkululeko Yokugweba

Ukuzimela ngokwamatyala kuthetha ukuba abagwebi bagqibe amatyala asekelwe kumthetho nakubungqina, kungekhona kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika, ikhethe lobuqu, okanye uluvo lukawonke wonke. Kuyimfuneko ukukhusela ukungakhethi buso. Inkululeko ikhuselwa ngeenkqubo ezifana nobomi (kubagwebi baseburhulumenteni), ukukhuselwa, nokumiselwa ngokungakhethi, kunye neenkqubo zokukhetha. Ngaphandle kwezi zikhuseli, iinkundla zinokuba zizixhobo zeqela elilawulayo, zicuthe idemokhrasi.

Izisongelo zehlabathi lokwenene zokuzimela geqe ziquka ucwangciso lokuzimela ngokwamatyala, uqingqo-mali olunciphisa imisebenzi exhobisayo, uloyiko lwabagwebi, kunye nohlaselo lwabacholacholi kwinkundla esemthethweni. Umzekelo, iimpikiswano zakutshanje ezingokumiselwa kwenkundla kumazwe ahlukeneyo ziye zaqalisa iingxoxo ngokuzimela ngokuzimela. Imfundo emalunga nenkululeko yokulawula kufuneka iquke ingxubusho yemigaqo yehambo esesikweni kunye nendima yamabhunga okuqeqesha ukuziphatha okubi. I-American Bar Association yemfundo kawonke-wonke yemali ibonelela uphando lwezenkululeko olunokudityaniswa nemithetho yezehlolo.

Imfundo nomanyano

Ukufundisa ngeenkundla akupheleli nje ekupheliseni ukucaciswa kwamasebe karhulumente. Imfundo ephumelelayo idibanisa iindlela ezidityanisiweyo ezidibanisa ubuchule bokucinga ngokugxeka, ukuphikisa, novelwano. Ngokuhlola amatyala okwenene okanye afanisiweyo, abafundi baqalisa ukuqonda ngendlela imigaqo esemthethweni esebenza ngayo kubomi bemihla ngemihla.

Ukugqalwa Kwamalungelo Neembopheleleko

Ulwazi lwejaji lunceda abafundi baqonde xa amalungelo abo ephulwa kwaye ebanika amandla okufuna unyango. Umzekelo, ukuqonda ingqiqo yenkqubo efunekayo kuyaqinisekisa ukuba abantu abaselula bayazi ukuba banelungelo lokuchotshelwa ngokusesikweni kwimimiselo yesikolo okanye kwinkundla yamatyala encinane. Izifundo kufuneka zigubungele amalungelo abamangalelwa (kulungile ukucebisa, ngokuchasene nokuzinyoba, njl.njl.) nendlela yokufumana uncedo olusemthethweni. Imithambo edlala ingakumbi (njengetyala lokutyhola intetho yenkululeko esikolweni)

Ukuqhuba Inkqubo Yomthetho

Ulwazi olusebenzisekayo lokuqalisa ukumangalelwa, ukukhupha isikhalazo, okanye ukusabela kwisicelo sibalulekile, nangona inkoliso yabantu ingabi ngabameli abasoloko bekho. Ukuqonda imimiselo yezithintelo, umthwalo wobungqina, kunye nenkqubo yezibongozo ikhubaza inkqubo yokulawula inkqubo yobulungisa. Iikliniki-mthetho zoLuntu kunye namaziko enkundla ancedisayo ayimizekelo yobuncwane izikolo ezinokumema ukunikela kubafundi. Uqukuqelo olulula lwemeko oluqhelekileyo, ukuphuma ekugqibeni kwesigqibo solwazi.

Ukuthetha Ngokusesikweni

Iinkundla zenkundla ziinkundla apho kuthandatyuzwa imibuzo enzima yokusesikweni, ukulingana, nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha. Ingxubusho yeklasi ngamatyala aphikisanayo (umz., ingqeqesho, intetho yentiyo, ukuzingcamla) ikhuthaza abafundi ukuba bachaze izikhundla abanokuqiqa ngazo kunye neembono ezichasanayo. Ootitshala bangasebenzisa indlela yobuSocratic, exhobisa ngeembono ezikhoyo neziphikisanayo. Le ndlela ifundisa ukuba okusesikweni kudla ngokuphikiswana ngezenzo kwaye iinkundla zingamaqumrhu azimeleyo athel ’ ekuhambeni kwexesha.

Ukuba Nenxaxheba Kwimisebenzi Eluncedo

Ummi ofundileyo usenokuba nobuchule bokuvota abatshayeli bezahlulelo-mthetho (apho kuyimfuneko), asebenze kwiinkundla zejaji, kwaye axhase utshintsho olusemthethweni. Iinkqubo ezifana nokhuphiswano lokuvavanya amatyala olutsha, kunye nohambo lwenkundla zidibanisa ngokuthe ngqo abafundi kwinkqubo yokugweba. Amaphondo amaninzi aneenkqubo zemfundo ze-piccips [ ezinxulumene nenkundla zephondo ukuzisa abagwebi ezikolweni. Ukuchanabeka okunjalo kudibanisa inkundla yejaji kwaye kuqinisa ingcamango yokuba iinkundla zezomthetho zingabantu.

Iimbambano Ezijamelene Neenkundla Zanamhlanje

Phezu kwayo nje indima yazo enzima, iinkundla kulawulo-melo oluninzi zijamelana nocelomngeni olubalulekileyo oluchaphazela amandla azo okusebenza ngokunempumelelo. Ukuqonda le miqobo kubalulekile kubafundi abaya kuba ngabavoti, amagqwetha okanye abaququzeleli bemithetho kwixesha elizayo.

Ukuthenjwa Nguwonke Wonke Nokuthenjwa

Ukuthemba ikomiti yezeejaji kuphelile kwamanye amazwe ngenxa yokuqiqa ngokuphangalala, ucalucalulo, okanye ukungafezeki. Izigqibo eziphezulu ze-profile ezahlulwe kwiingcambu zee-gnomes zingenza iinkundla zibonakale njengelinye isebe lezobupolitika. Amaphulo emfundo kawonke-wonke kunye nokubonakala ngaphaya kokuchasana okuthethwa ngomlomo kunganceda ekukhe kwakhiweni kwakhona kwentembelo. Abahlali baqonde ukuqiqa kwezomthetho, okanye ukungavumelani noko, xa bengafuni nokuvumelana.

Ukufikelela Kokusesikweni

Abantu abaninzi abanako ukukwazi ukufikelela imvume engokwasemthethweni, ukwenza isithuba sobulungisa. Kwimeko zabemi, abameli abazimelayo bajongene nemiqobo enzima, ngokufuthi ekhokelela kwiziphumo ezingalunganga. Iinkundla ziye zaphendula ngenkqubo ye-intanethi yejelo, iifomu ezenziwe lula, kunye nabaqhubi beenkundla, kodwa oovimba abangenele. Ootitshala bangabalaselisa ukubaluleka koncedo olusemthethweni nomsebenzi we-probono, ukunxulumanisa le mibandela kwiingxoxo ezithe kratya zentlalo.

Ukubekwa Kwezigwebo Zogwebo

Inkqubo yokukhetha abagwebi . "nokuba kungokunyulwa okanye ngokumiswa" kungaba lunyulo oluphezulu."EUnited States, ukuqinisekiswa kwenkundla ePhakamileyo kuye kwakhula impikiswano, kwaye olunye unyulo lwezomthetho lulawulwa kukusetyenziswa kwephulo elichithwa kumaqela abantu abanomdla." Oku kujongwa njengolu hlobo lokungakhethi. Ukufundisa abafundi ngokufanele ukukhotyokiswa kokhetho kunye nokuncitshiswa kobomi kunye nemiqathango yexesha kukhuthaza ukucingela ngokufanelekileyo ngokulungelelanisa ukuzimela nokuziphendulela.

Ukubekwa Kwetyala Nobuchule

Izibuko ezilayishwe kakhulu zilibazisa ubulungisa, ingakumbi kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho apho abamangalelwa benokuchitha iinyanga ezininzi bevalelwe ngaphambi kokuchotshelwa kwetyala. Ubuxhakaxhaka bunika izisombululo (ukuvalwa, ukuvakala kwetyala), kodwa inkqubo ephantsi kokucinezelwa ihlala iyimbambano eqhubekayo. Ulawulo lwetyala kunye nee-dokisi ezikhethekileyo (umz., iinkundla zeziyobisi, iinkundla zezonyango zengqondo) ziyimizekelo yeziphendulo eziphucula iziphumo ngoxa behlisa umgangatho wokusebenza. Abafundi bangahlalutya ulwazi oluseluvo logcino-lwazi olusuka kubuncwane obufana nolawulo lwelizwe lweziNkulwanyanzelo

Isiphelo

Umsebenzi weenkundla kwibutho ledemokhrasi unwenwela ngaphaya kokucombulula iimbambano. Batolika umthetho, bakhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye, bagcina iimvavanyo kumandla karhulumente, bagcine umthetho. Kubafundisi-lwazi, badlulisela ukuqonda le misebenzi yinxalenye ebalulekileyo yokulungiselela abafundi ukuba basebenze, batshate ubumi. Ngokudibanisa iindlela zokucacisa, imizekelo yehlabathi yokwenene, kunye nengxoxo enyanisekileyo yeengxaki zejajikoji, banokunceda abafundi ukuba baqonde ukuba iinkundla aziyo imigaqo ekude kodwa zisebenza ngendlela yokusesikweni kwemihla ngemihla. Kwihlabathi apho imilinganiselo yedemokhrasi ijongene nengcinezelo, ubuchule obuselubala obuxhasayo kwaye buxhasa intloko yejajiko ezimeleyo ibaluleke ngakumbi kunanini nanini nanini na.