Inkqubo yokugweba yakha isiseko salo naluphi na ulawulo oluphantsi, yaye entliziyweni yayo kukho iinkundla. Ngaphezu kokuba ziindawo nje zokuvavanywa kweetyala, iinkundla zisebenza njengamalungiselelo aphambili okutolika imithetho, ukucombulula iimbambano, nokuxhasa amalungelo abantu. Ukuqonda indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo — ukusuka ekufakeni ityala okokuqala ukuya kwisibheno sokugqibela — kubalulekile kungekuphela kwiingcali ezingokwasemthethweni kodwa nako nawuphi na ummi onolwazi. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa iindidi zemisebenzi yenkundla, ngokugxininisa ngokukhethekileyo ekuchongeni nasekuqhubeni izicelo, kwaye lihlolisisa indlela ezi nkqubo zigcina ngayo okusesikweni nomthetho.

Imboniselo yemisebenzi yenkundla

Iinkundla zenza imisebenzi emininzi ebalulekileyo kwinkqubo engokwasemthethweni. Nangona iindima ezithile zinokuhluka ngokwamagunya, ezi mbopheleleko zilandelayo ziqhelekile phantse kuwo onke amaqumrhu agwebayo anamhlanje:

Isisombululo seNkqutyana yeNkcaso

Umsebenzi oqhelekileyo weenkundla sisisombululo soxolo sempikiswano. Nokuba olo ngquzulwano luphakathi kwamaqela azimeleyo (amaqela) okanye phakathi korhulumente nomntu (ukumangalelwa ngokwezityholo), iinkundla zinikela ifomati ecwangcisiweyo apho kunikelwa khona ubungqina, iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni, kwaye kunikezelwa isigqibo esisibopheleleyo. Lo msebenzi uthintela abantu ekuthabatheni umthetho ezandleni zabo kwaye ugcine ulungelelwano lwentlalo.

Ukutolikwa Kwemithetho

Izigwebo zidlulisa imimiselo, kodwa iinkundla zichaza oko kuthethwa yiloo mimiselo. Ngenkqubo yenkcazelo ye , zigweba ingcaciso ecacileyo yolwimi, zisebenzisa imithetho kwizibakala ezithile, kwaye zigqibe ukuba umthetho uhambelana nemigaqo yesiseko. Lo msebenzi wokutolika unamandla ngokukodwa xa iinkundla zibandakanyeka kuphengululo lwezobuhlanga[ — ukubeka phantsi imithetho echasene nomgaqo-siseko.

Ukukhuselwa Kwamalungelo Omntu Ngamnye

Iinkundla zisebenza njengabameli bamalungelo omgaqo-siseko nawabantu. Abantu ngabanye banokuwabeka amatyala achaza ukuba amalungelo abo aphulwe ngurhulumente, ziinkampani, okanye ngabanye abantu. Ngenkqubo enjenge shabas corpus nezenzo zamalungelo abantu, iinkundla zinyanzelisa ukukhuselwa okupheliswe kwimimiselo, izivumelwano, nemimiselo.

Ukunyanzeliswa Kwemithetho

Iinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho zinyanzelisa imithetho yokugweba ngokuvavanya abantu abatyholwa ngezolwaphulo-mthetho. Emva kwesohlwayo, iinkundla ziyayalela ukuba kufakwe imithetho, kuthintelwe imiyalelo, kwaye kubekwe imiqathango yokuthotyelwa komthetho. Umsebenzi wokunyanzelisa ukunyanzeliswa komthetho uqinisekisa ukuba isigwebo asiyomigwebo nje yephepha kodwa sineziphumo zehlabathi zokwenene.

Uqhelaniso neStar Decis

Kwinkqubo zomthetho oqhelekileyo, iinkundla zikwadala umthetho ngemfundiso ye stare decisis (uvumele isigqibo sime). Isigqibo seenkundla ezinkulu siba yimiqathango engqinelanayo kwiinkundla ezisezantsi, ukuqinisekisa ukungaguquguquki nokuxelwa kwangaphambili. Lo mthetho owenzileyo uvela kwindaleko: njengoko iinguqu zebutho labantu, iinkundla zingayitshintsha imigaqo esemthethweni ngenkcazelo entsha, ngalo lonke ixesha zihlonela izigqibo ezidlulileyo.

Inkqubo Yokuvavanywa

Iimvavanyo zelona qondo libonakalayo lenkundla. Ityala kukuvavanywa okusesikweni kobungqina neengxoxo phambi kwejaji okanye abachopheli-tyala ukufumanisa ukuba unetyala (ulwaphulo-mthetho) okanye unetyala (umthetho). Le nkqubo isenokuhlulwa ngokweenqanaba eliphambili, ngalinye linemithetho neenjongo zalo.

Ukupheliswa Kwezilingo

Iimvavanyo azizenzekeli. Kwimeko zokothula. [, inkqubo iqala ngokubanjwa, ilandelwa luxwebhu oluchaphazelekayo (umz., ukumangalelwa okanye ulwazi). Ukuchotshelwa okanye ukuchotshelwa kwangaphambili okanye isalathi- tyala esiphezulu kungagqiba ukuba kukho ubungqina obaneleyo bokuqhubeka. [[[FLT:]] amatyala , ifayile ecacileyo yetyala, kunye nommangalelwa. Ngaphambi kokuba kuthethwe ityala, amaqela angene kwi [[FLT] [FLT] [FLT], amaxwebhu, iintekqumsko, kunye nobunye ubungqina — ukulungiselela iimeko zawo. Iimeko ezininzi zisombulula ukuvavanywa okanye ukuvavanywa okanye ukuvavanywa phambi kokuba kufikelelwe, kodwa kufuneka aphendule, kodwa aqhubeke inkundla.

Indima YaBagwebi Nemibhiyozo

Ijaji isebenza njengonompempe osemthethweni, ilawula ngokungachani kobungqina, ifundisa abachopheli-mthetho ngomthetho, iqinisekisa ukuba kuqhubekeke kakuhle. Abachopheli bejaji, apho ngoku, basebenza njenge Factremander[, ivavanya ubungqina nokugqiba inyaniso yezibakala. EUnited States, iSihlaziyi seSithandathu siqinisekisa ukuvavanywa kwetyala labachobi kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, kwaye isiHlulelo seSihlalo sinika ityala kwimicimbi emininzi yamakhaya. Noko ke, kwezinye iindawo ezininzi (kwimeko ezithile zase-US), ijaji kuphela (ityala) igweba ngezo zombini nenyaniso. Ukukhethwa kwe-ava-avalthi ngoluvo oluphuma [FLD] [FT]

Ukunikelwa Kobungqina

Ityala elifanelekileyo liquka iingxelo zokuvula, ezilandelwa kukunikezelwa kobungqina. Umtshutshisi unikela kuqala ityala labo, ubiza amangqina, ukwazisa amaxwebhu, kwaye ubonise ubungqina obuphathekayo. Ukuzikhusela kunika ityala lako, nangona linganqamla kwi-grain ingxengxezi. Icala ngalinye lingayichasa imibuzo engafanelekanga okanye ubungqina, kwaye imithetho yabagwebi ibekelwe ukuchasa. Imithetho yobungqina (njengeMimiselo Yobungqina yase-US) ilawula oko kusenokunikelwa, ukukhutshwa kwemincuthu, izinto ezikhankanyiweyo, okanye ubungqina obufunyenweyo ekuchaseni amalungelo.

Ubungqina bungajongwa ngqo (umz., ingqina lokuzibonela elingqinayo lisithi “Ndibone ummangalelwa etsala inkcukumiso” okanye i-modentiums (umz., ubungqina beminwe ebeka ummangalelwa kwindawo). Zombini ezi ndlela zibonakala zikho lonto logama nje zifanelekile kwaye zithembekile. Umthwalo wobungqina [ wohlukile ngohlobo: kwiimlingo zolwaphulo-mthetho, ityala kufuneka lingqine ukuba linetyala “ngaphandle kokuthandabuza okusengqiqweni”; kwiimlingo zamakhaya, ummangalelwa udla ngokufuna “ubungqina obuphambili."

Isigwebo neSivakalisi

Emva kokuba amacala omabini enike ubungqina bawo, ityala liya kwijaji (okanye kumgwebi kwityala lebheri) ukuze aqwalasele. Abachopheli betyala bafumana imiyalelo engomthetho osebenzayo ovela kumgwebi. Xa isigqibo sifikelelwa, sibhengezwa kwinkundla evulekileyo. Kwimiba yolwaphulo-mthetho, isigqibo setyala sikhokelela kwicandelo elahlukileyo lokugunyaziswa kwetyala [okanye kwijaji yejaji]. Ukugweba kunokwenzeka ngoko nangoko okanye emva kokuchotshelwa, kwaye kusenokubandakanya uluhlu lwezigwebo ezisuka kwintengiso nezo zisuka kwityala okanye ukuvalelwa entolongweni okanye, kwimithetho ethile, isigwebo sokufa. Kwimeko yasekuhlaleni, isigqibo singanika umonakalo lwemali okanye isindululo. Ukuba iqela likholelwa kwityala lokuvavanywa.

Inkqubo Yezibheno

Izibheno zinikela uvavanyo olubalulekileyo kwizigqibo zokuchotshelwa kwetyala. Isibheno asilotyala elitsha; kunoko, kukuphinda kuhlolwe kwetyala lantlandlolo lempazamo engokwasemthethweni. Iqela elifuna uhlolo (ummangalelwa) kufuneka libonise ukuba ijaji yetyala lenze impazamo eyachaphazela iziphumo. Inkqubo yokufaka isibheno iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho usetyenziswa ngokulinganayo kwaye okusesikweni kugcinwe.

Iziseko Zokubhenela

Izizathu eziqhelekileyo zokubhenela ziquka:

  • [[UMTL:0] Iimpazamo ezingokwenzululwazi – umz., ukuvunywa okungafanelekanga kobungqina, imiyalelo yabachopheli-tyala ephosakeleyo, okanye ukukhanyelwa kwetyala elilungileyo.
  • I-Ligastial utoliko oluphosakeleyo[[FLT: 1] – xa ijaji yetyala isebenzisa umlinganiselo ophosakeleyo womthetho okanye itolike kakubi umthetho.
  • Ukungaphumeleli kobungqina – umgwebi ogwebayo uphikisa ngelithi akukho bagwebi abafanelekileyo ababenokufikelela kwisigqibo esisekelwe kubungqina obunikiweyo.
  • Uncedo olusebenzayo lwesiluleko (kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho) – ukuba igqwetha lommangalelwa linikezele ngomGaqo-siseko ukuba lisikelwe phantsi.
  • [[UMTL:0] Ukusetyenziswa kobuchule – kusetyenziswa ngokuqhelekileyo xa kuhlolisiswa imithetho yomgwebi ogwebayo kwimicimbi efana nobungqina okanye isigwebo.

Okubalulekileyo kukuba, isibheno asinakuvelisa ubungqina obutsha okanye imibandela yokuzinzisa engaphakanyiswanga ekuchongeni (imfuneko yokubekwa kwetyala”). Ukuba iqela alizange likwazi ukuyenza into ngexesha lokuchotshelwa kwetyala, inkundla yeziphumo zezamayeza ayisayi kusoloko icinga ngalo mba okwesihlandlo sokuqala ekubhexezeni.

Inkundla

Izibheno ziviwa ziinkundla eziphakathi (umz., iiNkundla zeZibheno ze-US) okanye, kwezinye iimeko, zivela kwinkundla ephakamileyo yetyala okanye kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zamatyala, eziziinkundla ezigweba ezingoonotyala, ezithi zigwebo ezingoonotyala aba-6969, iinkundla ze-appelte zihlala kumacandelo ejaji ezintathu (okanye ezininzi zokuvalwa komthetho). Inkundla yenkundla ye-appellate ihlola ingxelo evela kwinkundla echolate — iirekhodi, imiboniso, imiqathango, kunye nesigwebo — zize ziqwalasele iingxoxo ezibhalwe ngamacala omabini. Iimpikiswano zentetho ezibhaliweyo zisenokucwangcilwa, kodwa zimfutshane kwaye zigxininiswe ngakumbi kunokuba zivavanywe.

Ukwenza inkqubo kunye nemigangatho yokuzihlola

Abagwebi abaphunyezweyo basebenzisa umahluko [[FLT: 0] udidi lophindo kuxhomekeke kwinkupho:

  • [[UMTL: 0] Devo no (ukususela ekuqaleni) – isetyenziselwa imibuzo ecacileyo yomthetho. Inkundla yezaphula-mthetho ayimniki mbambeli tyala kwaye ithatha indawo yengcaciso yayo.
  • Imposiso ecacileyo – isetyenziselwa ukufumanisa okuyinyaniso okwenziwa yijaji (hayi inkundla yabachopheli-tyala). Inkundla enenkcazelo iza kuxhasa ukufunyanwa ngaphandle kokuba iphazama.
  • [[UMTL:0] Isigqibo setyala siyaxhaswa ngaphandle kokuba singekho ngqiqweni okanye asiqiqi.
  • Ubungqina obukhoyo obungatshintshiyo – obusetyenziselwa izigqibo zabachopheli-mgwebi; isigqibo siza kuma ukuba nabani na ofanelekileyo ogwebayo unokuba wafikelela kweso sigqibo.

Emva kokuququzelela, inkundla enika imvume ebhaliweyo. Isiphumo singathatha iindlela eziliqela:

  • Isiqinisekiso – isigqibo senkundla esezantsi sihlala sihleli.
  • jika jika – isigqibo senkundla esezantsi siyarhoxiswa, ngokufuthi sinendlela yokungena kugwebo lwesahlulo.
  • [[UMTL:0] I-Remand – elityala lithunyelwa emva kwinkundla yamatyala ukwenzela ingcebiso ezithe zahambelana nomthetho we-empeelta.
  • Ukujika-jika – umgwebo ubekelwe bucala, kwaye ityala lingarhoxiswa okanye libuyiselwe kuvavanyo olutsha.

Ukuphela Kwezibheno Nokuzihlola Ngokubhekele Phaya

Kwinkoliso yeenkqubo, isigqibo senkundla ephakamileyo ephakamileyo (umz., inkundla ephakamileyo okanye iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.) sisiphelo. Noko ke, kwiimeko ezithile, iqela lingafuna isibheno esibhekele phaya. Umzekelo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ihlola inani elincinane kuphela lamatyala asuka kwiinkundla ezisezantsi zephondo kunye neenkundla eziphakamileyo zenkundla zelizwe ngesixhobo esiphakamileyo ] [FLT] ] [indlela yokugcina imigaqo epheleleyo] (inokubekwa ngaphaya kwezine izigwebo zivuma ukuva ityala). Ngokufanayo, amazwe amaninzi anenkundla ephakamileyo yenkundla ehlabhlwisana (um, iNkuvolo ephakamileyo) ekwakuqwalathiswa kuyo imigaqo-mthetho. Umgaqo womgaqo womthetho okokugqibela uqinisekisa ukuba iinjongo zokugweba nezinga zingapheli.

Ngaphaya Kwezilingo Nezibheno: Ezinye Imisebenzi Ezibalulekileyo Zenkundla

Uhlolo lwejaji kunye nokucaciswa komGaqo-siseko

Enye yezona misebenzi zinamandla zeenkundla, ingakumbi kwidemokhrasi yezomGaqo-siseko, yi-endingshorensi — amandla okubhengeza imisebenzi yemithetho okanye yegunya elilawulayo engamiselwanga. Eli gunya lasekwa kwisakhiwo esingumthetho. [[FLT:] [[2]] imarbury v. Madison [18.3] [iiiiiisiseko senkqubo yomthetho] kwaye ngoku lilelona tyala kuwo onke anokubandakanye ukutolika komgaqo-siseko, kodwa iinkundla eziphezulu zisoloko zinegama elikwintsingiselo yomgaqo womgaqo-siseko. Lo msebenzi ukhusela amalungelo amancinane, ukhusela ukwahlulwa kwamandla, kwaye uqinisekisa oko kusebenza phakathi kwemidalo lwasemthethweni. [FT]

Iindlela zokuphikisana nezomlilo.

Imisebenzi yenkundla yahluka kakhulu kuxhomekeka ekubeni ilizwe lilandela inkqubo yomthetho eqhelekileyo (njengakwinkqubo ye-U.S., UK, Australia) okanye inkqubo yomthetho wobupolisa (njengeFransi, iJamani, iJapan). Kwinkqubo yezomthetho, amaqela alawula ukunikezelwa kobungqina, kwaye ijaji ihlala ingunoxanduva. Kwinkqubo yenkundla yamakholwa, ijaji ithatha indima esebenzayo ekuphengululeni ityala, ukubuza amangqina, nokuqokelela ubungqina. Zombini ezi nkqubo zizimisele ukufikelela iziphumo zobulungisa, kodwa umsebenzi wenkundla nganye umi ngohlobo olwahlukileyo. Ukuqonda oku kubalulekile kuphandoqolo olusemthethweni. [FLD: 0]

Iinkundla Ezikhethekileyo

Iinkqubo ezininzi zenkundla ziquka iiprojekthi ezikhethekileyo zokusingatha iindidi ezithile zempikiswano ngokunempumelelo. Imizekelo iquka:

  • Iinkundla zosapho – ezithetha ngoqhawulo-mtshato, ilungelo lokugcina umntwana, nogonyamelo lwasekhaya.
  • [[UMTL:0] iinkundla zeTax – ukusombulula iimbambano phakathi kwababuthi berhafu namaqumrhu engeniso karhulumente.
  • Iinkundla zeBhankiptic - - ukuvelela kwintengiselwano zentengiso kunye nokulungiselwa kwakhona kwamatyala.
  • Iinkundla zolawulo – ukuhlola izigqibo zeziko (umz., ukufuduka, ukhuseleko loluntu).
  • Iinkundla zekomkhulu (umz., iNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yeJamani) – esingatha kuphela imibuzo yomGaqo-siseko.

Le mibutho ikhethekileyo inciphisa umthwalo kwiinkundla jikelele zokumangalelwa kwaye ivumela abagwebi abanobuchule obufanelekileyo ukuba bagqibe imicimbi entsonkothileyo. Izigqibo zabo zidla ngokubhenela kwiinkundla eziphezulu.

Indima Yedisijini Ezimeleyo

Ukuze iinkundla zisebenze kakuhle, kufuneka zibe zizimele kumasebe aphetheyo nawasemthethweni. Inkululeko yejaji iqinisekisa ukuba abagwebi banokugqiba amatyala asekelwe kumthetho nakulwazi kuphela, ngaphandle koloyiko lwempindezelo okanye uxinzelelo. Lo mgaqo ukhuselwa kubomi (okanye ukumiselwa kwexesha elide kwe-676term), imivuzo, kunye nemilinganiselo yemithetho. Xa inkqubo yejaji yejaji ilalani ihlengahleza, yonke inkqubo yomthetho iyabandezeleka, kwaye isonakaliswa yiyo. ISikolo solwazi somthetho sichaza ingqiqo yenkululeko yomthetho kubunzulu[FLT]

Isiphelo

Ukusukela ekuqulunqeni ityala ukuya kwisigqibo sokugqibela senkundla ephakamileyo, imisebenzi yenkundla iphindwa ngeendidi kwaye ibalulekile. Iinkundla zilungiselela ukucombulula iimpikiswano nokugqiba ukuba ityala limele lisetyenziswe, ngoxa izibheno ziqinisekisa ukuba iimpazamo ziyalungiswa kwaye imigaqo esemthethweni iyasetyenziswa rhoqo. Ngaphezu kwezi nkqubo zingundoqo, iinkundla zichaza imimiselo, zidala imizekelo, zize zikhusele amalungelo abantu ngabanye. Impilo yebutho isoloko ilinganiswa ngamandla nengqibelelo yenkqubo yalo yokugweba. Ngokuqonda indlela iinkundla ezisebenza ngayo — ukukhutshelwa kwezilingo zomthetho nokuze zibonelele ngokufanelekileyo — abemi bayakwazi ngakumbi ukuthobela umthetho nokuthabatha inxaxheba kwimigaqo yabo. Ukuqonda ezi nkqubo zikwazisa iingxoxo eziqhubekayo ngokwenziwa kotshintsho, ukufikelela kobulungisa, nokulingana phakathi kokusebenza nokulunga. Njengoko iinkqubo ezingomthetho zivelisa indima engundoqo yenkundla ezihlala zihleli: ukulungiselela ukuqhuba imigaqo yobulungisa, nokugweba okungenamkhethe, nokugweba okusesikweni.

Izibonelelo ezidityanisiweyo: Ukuqhubeka ufundo olungentla kwisakhiwo seenkundla zelizwe eUnited States, tyelela i- U.S. iinkundla zewebhsayithi ezisemthethweni[ kunye ne ICornell Legin Incation Institute yenkundla [].