Table of Contents
Ababusi Abaphethe Bachaza: Yini Eyenza Uhulumeni Wezwe Uhluke?
Uhulumeni kahulumeni we-United States usebenza ngaphansi kwesimiso esiyingqayizivele esiwuhlukanisayo kohulumeni bezwe. Ukuqonda lokhu kungafani kubaluleke kakhulu kubafundi nakothisha ngokufanayo. Ngokungafani nezindawo, uhulumeni wezwe uthola igunya lakhe ngokuqondile kuMthetho-sisekelo, odala ukuhlukaniswa okulinganiselwe okusheshayo kwamandla. Lesi sihloko sihlola amandla kahulumeni wesizwe, incazelo yawo, nendlela ababumba ngayo ukubusa izwe. Ngokuhlola isisekelo somthetho sisekelo, imibuso eyinhloko, imingcele, imingcele, nezincazelo zeNkanto ephakeme, abafundi bayozuza ukwazisa okujulile ngekhono lokwakha eliye lasekela ukubusa kwezwe kwaseMelika emakhulwini amabili eminyaka.
Ifulegi Yohlobo Lwe - Federalism
UFederalism uyisimiso sikahulumeni lapho umbuso uhlukaniswa khona phakathi kwegunya elikhulu nezinhlangano zezombangazwe ezihlangene. E-United States, lokhu kusho ukuthi kuhlanganyelwa amandla phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe nohulumeni bombuso. Loluhlelo luhlelwe eMthethweni-sisekelo wase-U.S., omisa uhlelo lwemibuso ethile ngenkathi igcine igunya elithile ezweni. Abasunguli bezinhlelo zombuso baklanyelwe ukuvimbela noma iyiphi into eyodwa ukuba ibe namandla kakhulu, badala i-"compoond republic" lapho izakhamuzi zibuswa khona yimibuso emibili ehlukene kodwa ehlala ndawonye.
Izimpande ezingokomlando zombuso wombuso zingalandelelwa ezimpikiswaneni phakathi kwamaFederalist ne-Anti-Fedalist phakathi nenkathi yokudilizwa. Izilinganiso ezinjengoAlexander Hamilton zasekela uhulumeni onamandla wokulondoloza ubunye nokuzinza kwezomnotho, kuyilapho uThomas Jefferson wagcizelela ukubaluleka kobukhosi bukahulumeni. Ukuhlehla okuye kwavela kwenza uhulumeni wesizwe wanikeza imibuso eqondile, kuyilapho ishiyela yonke eminye imibuso ezindaweni noma kubantu — isimiso esathi kamuva samiswa eSiphendulweni seshumi.
Umshini Womthetho - sisekelo
UMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe, futhi uchaza ubukhulu bemibuso kahulumeni. Ingxenye I, iSiqeshana 8 iqukethe uhlu oluyinhloko lwemibuso ye-convent, kuyilapho iSiphakamiso II sinikeza umongameli igunya lokubusa, futhi iSiphakamiso III simisa igatsha lokwahlulela. Isimemezelo sobukhulu boMthetho-sisekelo esiseSiphakamiso VI siqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni unqoba imithetho ephikisanayo, kodwa kuphela lapho uhulumeni kahulumeni usebenza ngaphansi kwegunya lawo elingokomthetho.
Imibuso kahulumeni wezwe ingahlukaniswa ibe ngezinhlobo eziningana eziyinhloko:
- Amandla amanani: Lawa ahlelwe ngokuqondile eSigabeni I, Ingxenye 8 yoMthetho-sisekelo. Ahlanganisa ikhono lokulawula intela ye-levy, ukulawula intela yezentengiselwano zamazwe ngamazwe nezwe, imali, ukumemezela impi, amabutho aphakeme, nokumisa amahhovisi eposi. Lemibuso yabhalwa ngamabomu ukuze ilinganiselwe futhi iqonde, ibonisa ukukhomba kwegunya eliphethe.
- Amandla asetshenziswayo: Lemibuso ayishiwo ngokuqondile kodwa idingekile ukuze kusetshenziswe amandla adwetshiwe. Ithathwe futhi ku-Claus obalulekile nofanele, owaziwa nangokuthi isisho esinwebekayo, esitholakala ekupheleni kweSiphakamiso I, Ingxenye 8. Lesigaba sinikeza amaKhomishana igunya lokwenza yonke imithetho "eyimfuneko nefanele" ukwenza amandla ayo ahlelwe ngokwezimo, ukunikeza ushintsho ekushintsheni izimo zesizwe.
- Amandla azimele: Lamagunya uhulumeni wezwe onawo nje ngokuba yindawo ebusayo emhlabeni. Ngokwesibonelo, amandla okulawula ukufuduka, ukuxoshwa kwabantu abangewona amathumbu, nokuthola indawo kubhekwa njengefa ngoba ingabezwe elizimele. Nakuba lingabalwanga ngokuqondile, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yawaqaphela lamandla njengebalulekile ebukhosini besizwe.
Amandla Amancane Asebenzayo
Ukuze siqonde kangcono ukuthi yini eyenza uhulumeni wesizwe uhluke, kuwusizo ukuhlola indlela amandla kahulumeni amakhulu asebenza ngayo.
Ukukhokha Intela Negunya Lokukhokha Intela
Uhulumeni unegunya elikhulu lokukhokha izintela ze-levy kubantu ngabanye nasemabhizinisini. Lombuso ubalulekile ekuxhaseni imisebenzi kahulumeni, isivikelo sesizwe, izakhiwo, nezinhlelo zezenhlalakahle. ISimemezelo seShumiatath, sagunyazwa ngo1913, sagunyazwa ngokucacile uMkhandlu ukuba ubeke intela yeholo ngaphandle kokwabela izifundazwe, ukukhokha okukhula okukhulu kwemali ekhokhwayo kahulumeni.
Intela yanamuhla ihlanganisa intela yeholo, ukukhokha intela ebhalisayo ye-Social Security and Medicare, intela yenkampani, izimemezelo zezimpahla ezivela kwamanye amazwe, kanye nentela ekhokhwayo ezintweni ezinjengophethiloli notshwala. I-International Revolution Service (INkokhelo) inikeza lentela, iqoqa izigidigidi zamaRandi minyaka yonke. Leligunya lokukhokha imali hhayi nje kuphela izimali zikahulumeni kodwa futhi livumela uMkhandlu ukuba uthonyele ukuziphatha okungokomnotho ngezisusa zentela nezijeziso, ngokuphumelelayo ukuthuthukisa umthetho wezwe ezindaweni ezinjengezingamandla avuselisayo, indawo yokuphatha ikhaya, nokunakekela impilo.
Ukuqondiswa Kwezentengiselwano
Enye yemibuso ebaluleke kakhulu kahulumeni kahulumeni kahulumeni umthetho wezentengiselwano zamazwe ngamazwe ngaphansi kweCommerce Claus (ISici Sezitho Zezitho Zengqondo, Ingxenye 8, uClause 3). Leligunya liqinisekisa uhlelo oluhlangene lwezomnotho ezindaweni ezithile futhi livimbela izifunda ezihlukene ukuba zimise imithetho ephikisanayo yezohwebo engaphazamisa imakethe yesizwe.
Ngokwesayensi iNkantolo Ephakeme ichaza iChomark Claus ngokwenani elikhulu. [FLT] Geon [1824] , iSikhulu seSishayamthetho John Marshall sachaza ibhizinisi ngokubanzi ukuze lihlanganise zonke izinkolo, kuhlanganise nokuhamba ngemikhumbi. Lesinqumo sasungula ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe unegunya lezentengiselwano ezinqamule imigqa. Ngokuqhubekayo, leligunya landiswa ukulawula imisebenzi ethinta ezentengiselwano zezentengiselwano, ngisho noma isendaweni. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Civil Rights Act ka-1964 ithembele entellics ukuba inqabe ukucwa kwezinhlanga ezindlweni, futhi i-Aftable Act imele i-'ult (i-Acted Act) ngaphansi kweNka yeNka yeNka yeNkathi.
Izindaba Zokuzivikela Zezwe Nezakwamanye Amazwe
Uhulumeni kahulumeni unomthwalo wemfanelo wokuphela wokuzivikela kwesizwe kanye nokuziphatha kobuhlobo bakwamanye amazwe. UMthetho-sisekelo unika uMkhandlu amandla okumemezela impi, ukuphakamisa nokusekela amabutho, futhi ulungiselele isivikelo esifanayo. Umongameli, njengesikhulu samabutho ahlomile, uqondisa imisebenzi yezempi nezimiso zakwamanye amazwe.
Lamandla ahlanganisa ikhono lokuxhumana ngezivumelwano (ngemvume yeSigele), ukumisa amanxusa, nokuqaphela ohulumeni bangaphandle. Uhulumeni wezwe ulondoloza futhi izikhali zenuzi, izinhlangano zokuhlakanipha, kanye nebutho elikhona elingathunyelwa kokubili emakhaya nakwamanye amazwe. Ukusetshenziswa kwemali yokuvikela ehlangene kuyingxenye ebalulekile yemali yesizwe, ibonakalisa isibopho esiyinhloko sikahulumeni sokuvikela isizwe ekusongelwani ngaphandle. Ukusetshenziswa kwaleligunya kuhlanganisa ukugunya lokusebenzisa iMikhosi Yempi ngemva kokuhlasela kwe-September 11 nemisebenzi yezempi eqhubekayo ezindaweni ezinjengeMpumalanga Ephakathi.
Ezindabeni zakwamanye amazwe, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela igunya eliyifa likamongameli lokusebenza njengezwi eliwukuphela kwezwi lesizwe ekukhulumeni. United States v. Curtiss-Woright Export Corp. (1936), iNkantolo yasho ukuthi umongameli unenkululeko enkulu yenkambiso yakwamanye amazwe, ethathwe kuMthetho-sisekelo kuphela kodwa emagunyeni ezwe ezwe elizimele.
Ukufuduka Nokuzivuselela Kwemvelo
Uhulumeni wezwe unamandla akhethekile okulawula ukufuduka — ukungena, ukuhlala, nokudingiswa kwabantu abangebona abavamile. Lombuso uzuzwe ngefa ebukhosini futhi usekelwe eMthethweni woBushinwa ka Claus (Umdwebo I, Ingxenye 8, u-Claus 4), onika uMkhandlu igunya lokumisa umthetho ofanayo wokuzenzakalela.
Umthetho we-Federal wezokufuduka umisa izigaba zemvume, izinqubo zokukhosela, kanye nezikhungo zokudingiswa. UMnyango we Homeland Security, ngezinhlangano ezinjenge-U.S. i-Monigration Service (USCIS) kanye ne-Immigration and Custommentism Enforcementment (ICE), umisa izigaba ze-mvume zemvume yokungena kwamanye amazwe. Uhulumeni ulawula futhi owenazo ezifuna abafuduki, ukuba bahlangane nezakhamuzi ezihlala khona, ulimi, nolwazi lomphakathi. Izwe lilinganiselwe ikhono lokulawula ukufuduka nokulawula izinhlangano zezwe, nakuba lingathinta imithetho yezezamfuduko nezimiso zesikhashana, izinhlelo zemisebenzi, izinhlelo zesikhashana, nezinhlelo zemisebenzi.
Inkonzo Yeposi Nempahla Ewubuciko
Nakuba kuvame ukunganakwa, amandla kahulumeni kahulumeni okumisa amahhovisi eposi nemigwaqo yeposi (ISiqeshana, iSiqeshana 8, u-Claus 7) siye sasetshenziswa ekubopheleni isizwe ndawonye. INkonzo yePostal Irhweba ithumela iposi kunoma iliphi ikheli ezweni, isekela ezentengiselwano nezokuxhumana. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iCopyright ne Paten Claus (Izinsizi 8) inikeza uHulumeni amandla okuvikela abalobi nabasunguli amalungelo akhethekile emikhankanti yabo yezikhathi ezilinganiselwe, ithuthukisa ukusungulwa nokubonakaliswa kwendlela yokusungula. Leligunya lisekela iHhovisi neHhovisi Lezokuhweba neHhovisi Lezincwadi, enikeza futhi igunyaza amalungelo ezisebenzi ezihlakaniphile ezweni lonke.
Imingcele Yegunya Likahulumeni
Nakuba uhulumeni kahulumeni unamandla aphawulekayo, kunokwehluleka okubalulekile okubekwe eMthethweni - sisekelo ukuze kuvinjelwe ukusetshenziswa kabi kwegunya.
Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nobukhosi BukaHulumeni
Lenguquko isebenza njengesikhumbuzo sokuthi uhulumeni wezwe ungowombuso olinganiselwe, onezigaba ezihlukene. Amazwe anegunya ezindabeni ezinjengemfundo, umthetho wobugebengu, ukusetshenziswa kwezindawo, umshado, nezentengiselwano zamazwe. Futhi asebenzisa amandla amaphoyisa ukuvikela impilo yomphakathi, ukuphepha, nezimiso zokuziphatha — amandla uhulumeni ophethe antulayo.
INkantolo Ephakeme iye yasebenzisa lemingcele ezicabeni ezifana no United States v. Lopez (1995), lapho iNkantolo yashaya khona iGun-Free School Counts Act ngenxa yokuthi ithwele isibhamu eduze kwesikole asizange sithinte ibhizinisi lamazwe ahlukene. Lesinqumo saphawula ukubuyiselwa okubalulekile kwezentengiselwano zezentengiselwano Clausle amandla, sikhumbuza iziKhomishane ukuthi akuzona zonke izinkinga ezingokombuso wesizwe. Ngokufanayo, [[FLT:] Shicilela u-Pritz. United States [1997][FLT:], iNkantolo yenkantolo eyayithiwena ukuthi uhulumeni uhulumeni ungenamthetho wokuhlola isizinda seze-movemental, ukuqinisekisa isimiso sombuso wezwe.
Isimiso Samasheke Nokulinganisela
Isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisela siphinde sivimbele imibuso kahulumeni ngokuqinisekisa ukuthi alikho igatsha likahulumeni elinamandla kakhulu. Igatsha ngalinye — isikhulu, iziphathimandla, nokwahlulela — linamandla okulinganisela amandla abanye:
- [ Iziphetho ezisemthethweni: ulawulo lwezimali, kungakhipha umongameli namajaji kahulumeni, futhi kumelwe kuvunyelwe izivumelwano nokumiswa kwezikhulu.
- Izibalo ezisebenzayo:[ Umongameli angagunyaza umthetho, amise amajaji kahulumeni ngemvume yeSigele, futhi akhiphe iziyalo zesikhulu.
- [[QUT: 0] I-skerogory: INkantolo Ephakeme ingamemezela imithetho noma izenzo zezikhulu ngokuhlola kokwahlulela, amandla asungulwe ku Marbury v. Madison (1803).
Lokhu kwahlukana kwemibuso kuqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni uhulumeni ngeke wandise igunya lakhe kalula ngaphandle kokubhekana nokuphikisa kwelinye igatsha. Ngokwesibonelo, lapho uMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt ezama ukwandisa iNkantolo Ephakeme ngo-1937 (icebo le-"ulight - packing"), iSishaya-Mkhandlu nomphakathi benqaba, futhi lelicebo lahluleka.
Indima YeNkantolo Ephakeme Ekulawuleni Amandla E - féderal
INkantolo Ephakeme inendima ebalulekile ekuchazeni uMthetho - sisekelo nasekunqumeni ubukhulu bemibuso kahulumeni. Amacala ezindawo zokuphawula aye achaza futhi achaza kabusha igunya likahulumeni ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, okubonisa ukushintsha kwezidingo zomphakathi namafilosofi okwahlulela.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Lelicala lamisa izimiso ezimbili ezigxekayo: imfundiso yamandla ashoyo kanye nokuphakama komthetho kahulumeni phezu komthetho kahulumeni. Lapho uMaryland ezama ukukhokhisa iBhange lesibili lase-United States, uMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall wabusa ukuthi uKhongolo lwalunamandla ashiwoyo okwakha ibhange lesizwe ngaphansi komthetho ka Claus odingeke noMfaneleyo, ngisho noma uMthetho-sisekelo ungagunyazi ngokuqondile ibhange elinjalo. Marshall wabhala ngodumo ukuthi "umbuso wokukhokha intela uhilela amandla okubhubhisa," futhi ngenxa yalokho amazwe awakwazi ukukho ukukhokha intela izinhlangano zikahulumeni. Lesi sinqumo sandisa amandla kahulumeni futhi sihlala singumbombo womthetho womthetho.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Kulendaba, iNkantolo Ephakeme yacacisa izinga lamandla oMkhandlu wokulawula izentengiselwano zamazwe asenyakatho. INew York yayinikeze igunya lokuqondisa isikebhe esinezitimu emanzini ayo, kodwa umncintiswano osebenza ngaphansi kwemvume kahulumeni wabekela umthetho wombuso inselele. INkantolo yanquma ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni wezentengiselwano uClaus othenjiwe, njengoba ezohwebo zihlanganisa ukuqondisa nokuhlanganisa zonke izindaba ezinqamule imikhawulo kahulumeni. Lesi sinqumo samisa ukuphakama kukahulumeni kwezentengiselwano ephakathi kwezwe futhi samisa isisekelo sesimiso sezomnotho sanamuhla.
I - United States uk. Lopez (1995) ne - Exchange Yanamuhla UClaus
Ngemva kwamashumi eminyaka encazelo ezinkulu zezentengiselwano uClaus, United States v. Lopez waphawula inkathi yokushintsha. INkantolo yathi iGun-Free School Zone Act — eyenza ukuba kube ubugebengu bukahulumeni ukuba nento yokudubulana nesikole — ukudlula amandla ezentengiselwano zeCongress ngoba umsebenzi awuthintenga kakhulu ezentengiselwano. UJaji omkhulu uWilliam Rehnquist waveza ukuthi ibhizinisi likaClaus awekhonakele iphoyisatha lamaphoyisa futhi uKhomishane wezentengiselwano. Lendaba ivuse iphinde iqiniswe imingcele yezentengiselwano e[Foct:2] eUnited States.[FLD][2]
Izimpikiswano Zanamuhla Ngezimpikiswano Ze - Federal
Ukuhlukaniswa kwamandla phakathi kukahulumeni wezwe nemibuso kusalokhu kuyimpikiswano kwezombangazwe zanamuhla.
I- Inqaba: Ukwanda kwe-Affordcable Care Act kwaqala ukubekelwa inselele njengomphangi wamandla kahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi uhulumeni wezwe ngeke usongele izifunda ngokulahlekelwa yimali exhasayo uma benqaba ukwandisa imvume — ukunqoba okuyinhloko kombuso. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, imibuso eminingana iye yakhetha ukukhushulwa, yakha icebo lokukhomba elithi abagxeki balulaza ukufana kwesizwe.
Ukuhlelwa kwe-Environmental Regation: Umthetho womoya ohlanzekile no-Ceac Water Act unika i-Nvironmental Protection (EPA) igunya elibanzi lokulawula ukungcola. Ama-EPA ngokuvamile abekela inselele imithetho ye-EPA, ephikisa ukuthi aphazamisa igunya le-EPA lokulawula izwe nokuphatha izimpahla. INkanto ephakeme iye yalinganisa ezimweni ezinje [FLT:] [FLT]] Massachuts v. [2007], eliqinisekisa igunya le-EPA lokulawula amagesi okushisa, kanye ne-[FLT] i-Virginia.[FLT]
I-Public Health Emermentations: Umqedazwe we-COVID-19 waqokomisa ukucindezeleka phakathi kwesiqondiso sikahulumeni nezenzo zikahulumeni. Nakuba uhulumeni wakhipha ukutusa kwempilo yesizwe futhi wasakaza imithi yokugoma, uyaqhubeka unegunya eliyinhloko eziyalweni zempilo zomphakathi, kuhlanganise nemithetho yokufihla izifihla ubuso nezokuvala ibhizinisi. Abanye ababusi basekela iziqondiso zikahulumeni, eziholela ezimpini zomthetho phezu kwamandla empahleni embusweni yegunya phakathi nezimo eziphuthumayo.
Imfundo: ngokuyinhloko iwumthwalo wemfanelo wezwe nowendawo, kodwa uhulumeni uthonya uhlelo ngemibandela yezimali (isimo, Isihloko nginika nokungabikho kumntwana Oshiyelwe Ezimfunekweni). Impikiswano ngokuhileleka kombuso ezindinganisweni zezifundo, ukuhlola, nokukhetha kwesikole iyaqhubeka isebenzisa inkulumo yezombangazwe.
Isiphetho
Ukuqonda imibuso kahulumeni kahulumeni wezwe kubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuyinkimbinkimbi kokubusa kwaseMelika. Ukwehlukana okuyingqayizivele kwemibuso, ukulinganiselwa komthetho-sisekelo, nendima yeNkantolo Ephakeme konke kunengxenye esimisweni esinamandla esiqhubeka siguquka. Uhulumeni wezwe wabala, washo, futhi wathola amandla angokwemvelo okuxazulula izinkinga zezwe — intela, ezentengiselwano, isivikelo, ukufuduka, nokunye — kuyilapho ucabangela ubukhosi bezwe ezindabeni zendawo.
Othisha nabafundi kumelwe bahlanganyele kulemiqondo ukuze bathuthukise ukwazisa okujulile ngesakhiwo sikahulumeni wase-United States. Ngokufunda uMthetho-sisekelo, izenzakalo eziphawula izenzakalo ezifana no . MCulloch v. Maryland[[[FLT]] [[FLT]] kanye [[FLT] ne-United States] v. Lopez[, kanye nezimpikiswano zamanje eziphakathi kwe-ganobhulizimu, abakwazi ukuqonda indlela uhulumeni wombuso ophethe osebenza ngayo kodwa nendlela amandla awo aqhubeka evivinywa futhi echazwe ngayo. Impumelelo kahulumeni waseMelika ixhomeke kulowo oqonda indlela yokuhlela nokuhlanganyela kwesimiso sezwe futhi uhlanganyele phakathi kwe-FLYFLY]