Table of Contents

Ukuqonda amacala abalulekile enkantolo abalulekile kuyisakhamuzi ngasinye esifuna ukuqonda ngokugcwele amalungelo nenkululeko yaso yomthetho-sisekelo. Lezi zinqumo eziyisisekelo zomthetho ziye zawuguqula ngokuyisisekelo umphakathi waseMelika, zichaza imingcele phakathi kwenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye negunya likahulumeni. Kusukela enkantolo kuya ekuphileni kwansuku zonke, lamacala ayaqhubeka ethonya indlela esiphila ngayo, ukusebenza, kanye nokusebenzelana nezinhlangano zomthetho. Lesiqondiso esibanzi sihlola izinqumo ezibaluleke kakhulu zeNkantolo Ephakeme eziye zavikela futhi zandisa inkululeko yomphakathi, siqinisekisa ukuthi izakhamuzi ziyaziqonda isisekelo esingokomthetho senkululeko yazo.

Isisekelo Sezigwegwe Zasezweni Ezivinjelwe EMelika

Izinqumo zenkantolo ezithatha indawo zivela kaningi kakhulu eNkantolo Ephakeme, isebenza njengomsunguli wokugcina wemibuzo yomthetho-sisekelo eUnited States. Lamacala amisa izenzakalo ezingokomthetho okufanele zilandelwe izinkantolo eziphansi, zakha uhlelo olungaguquki lokuchaza uMthetho-sisekelo nomthetho kahulumeni. Incazelo yalezi zinqumo idlulela ngalé kwenkantolo, ithinta izigidi zamaMelika ekuphileni kwazo kwansuku zonke.

Indima yeNkantolo Ephakeme ekuvikeleni inkululeko yabantu iye yashintsha kakhulu kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika. Nakuba ezinye izinqumo zokuqala zigcizelela imikhuba yokulahla icala, iNkantolo iye yasebenza ngokuqhubekayo njengomgcini wamalungelo ezakhamuzi nenkululeko, ikakhulukazi kusukela phakathi nekhulu lama-20 kuqhubeke. Ukusebenzisa kweNkantolo yoMthetho-sisekelo ukuvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye nenkululeko kusukela phakathi namakhulu angamashumi amabili kuya ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-21 kuhluke kakhulu ezinqumweni zayo zangaphambili nangemva. Ukuqonda le mfundiso kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziqonde intuthuko enziwayo nezinselele eziqhubekayo ekuvikeleni amalungelo omthetho.

Ukwahlulela Kobugebengu Namalungelo Enqubo Afanele

UGideyoni: Ilungelo lokumelela okungokomthetho

Elinye lamacala ashintsha kakhulu enkantolo yamagebengu yaseMelika nguGideon v. Wainwright (1963). UGideon noWainwright unecala lokuguqula isimiso sokwahlulela kobugebengu ngokunikeza izigebengu ilungelo kummeli, ngisho noma zingakwazanga ukulithenga ngokwazo. Lelicala laqala lapho uClarence Earl Gideon, ummangalelwa owenqabayo ebekwe icala ngecala eFlorida, wacela ukuba inkantolo imise ummeli ukuba ammelele. Lapho isicelo sakhe siphoqelelwa ukuba azimele enkantolo futhi kamuva walahlwa icala.

INkantolo yathi iSichibiyelo Sesithupha selungelo lokusiza ekunikezeni iseluleko sisebenza ekuqulweni kwecala futhi “izazi zasenkantolo zobugebengu ziyimfuneko, akuzona izinto zokunethezeka. ” Lesi sinqumo esiphawulekayo saqaphela ukuthi ngaphandle kokumelelwa ngokomthetho, abamangalelwa abanakuqulwa ngokulunga, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi icala labo lifaneleka kanjani. Lesi sinqumo savuma ukuthi isimiso somthetho siyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu ukuba abantu abaningi bahambe ngokuphumelelayo ngaphandle kosizo lochwepheshe.

Kanye nelungelo lokusiza abamangalelwa becala likahulumeni, isinqumo sikaGideyoni saba nomphumela wokwandisa izimiso zomphakathi zokuvikela ezweni lonke. Lokhu kwashintsha ngokuyisisekelo indlela ukwahlulela kobugebengu okusebenza ngayo eMelika, kuqinisekisa ukuthi ubumpofu bodwa abunakunquma umphumela wecala lobugebengu. Namuhla, amahhovisi omphakathi akhona kuwo wonke umbuso, anikeza izigidi zabamangalelwa abangenakukwazi ukukhokhela abameli.

Miranda v. Arizona: Ukuvikela ukumelana nokuzilimaza

Mhlawumbe alikho icala leNkantolo Ephakeme eliye lagxila kakhulu emasikweni athandwa kakhulu aseMelika kunaseMiranda (1966) i - Arizona, iyavuma, iphethe ukuthi amaphoyisa kumelwe azise abasolwayo ngamalungelo awo ngaphambi kokuphenywa. Lelicala lavela ngemva kokuba uErnesto Miranda evume ukuthi udlwengule futhi uthumbe ngemva kwamahora amaningi ephenywa amaphoyisa, ngaphandle kokutshelwa amalungelo akhe angokomthetho.

INkantolo yathola ukuthi iziNkantolo zeSichibiyelo sesihlanu neseSithandathu zidinga ukuba amaphoyisa azise abantu abasejele ukuthi banelungelo lokuthula futhi basizwe ummeli. Izixwayiso ezijwayelekile "iMiranda" zokuthi amaphoyisa asho njalo lapho eboshiwe −" unelungelo lokuthula. Noma yini okushoyo ingasetshenziswa futhi izosetshenziswa enkantolo yomthetho. Unelungelo lommeli""""

NgokweNkantolo, uma amaphoyisa ehluleka ukwenza kanjalo, umahluleli wenkantolo angase anqume ukuthi noma iziphi izinkulumo ezishiwo ummangalelwa azinakuvunywa njengobufakazi phakathi nokuqulwa kwecala.

IMap v. Ohio: Ukubusa Kwe - Exclousionary

Izinto ezitholakala ngokungemthetho azinakusetshenziswa ekuqulweni kwecala lobugebengu, ngokwesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme eMap v. Ohio (1961). Lelicala lalihilela uDollree Mapp, owayeseshwa indlu amaphoyisa ayengayifaki imvume yokufuna esemthethweni. Phakathi nokuphenya, izikhulu zathola izinto eziyinhlamba zambopha.

INkantolo Ephakeme yavuma futhi yasebenzisa umthetho wokuhlukanisa wezwe kusukela eWeksly kuya eUnited States (1914). Lesisinqumo saveza ukuthi ubufakazi obutholakala ngokuphenya okungekho emthethweni nokuquleka abunakusetshenziswa ngokumelene nabamangalelwa ezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Umthetho wokuhlukanisa usebenza njengesehlo esibucayi emaphoyiseni, uvimbela ukugcinwa komthetho ekuphuleni iSichibiyelo sesine ekuphenyeni okungenangqondo nasekuqubukeni.

Isinqumo se-Map siqinisekisa ukuthi isivikelo somthetho-sisekelo asiyona nje indlela ecatshangelwayo kodwa sinezimiso ezisebenzayo zokugcinwa komthetho-mthetho. Ngokukhipha ubufakazi obutholakele ngokungemthetho, izinkantolo zisusa isisusa sokuba amaphoyisa aphule amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, avikele imfihlo yezakhamuzi nempahla kuhulumeni ophambayo.

Amalungelo Omphakathi Nesivikelo Esilinganayo Ngaphansi KoMthetho

Brown v. Board of Education: Ending Secovation

Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ingesinye sezinqumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu emlandweni waseMelika. Lelicala layibekela inselele ngokuqondile imfundiso "ehlukene kodwa elinganayo" eyasungulwa ePlesty v. Ferguson (1896), eyayivumele ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikhungweni zomphakathi cishe iminyaka engamashumi ayisithupha. Isinqumo seBrown samemezela ngokuvumelana ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula i-Ecule Exme Exect Clausle yeSiphembeleko seSiphendulo se-14.

INkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi izakhiwo zemfundo ezihlukene ngokusemthethweni zazingalingani, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi izakhiwo ezingokomzimba nengcebo zilingana yini. Lesi sinqumo savuma ukulimala okungokwengqondo nokungokwenhlalo okwenziwa ukuhlukaniswa uhulumeni, okwaphawula inguquko emzabalazweni wamalungelo abantu. Brown v. iBrown Broad of Education yanikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho sokuhlukanisa imithetho uJim Crow kuyo yonke iNingizimu futhi ishukumisele imizamo ebanzi yokufinyelela ukulingana kwezinhlanga.

Ukumiswa kukaBrown kwabhekana nokumelana okukhulu, okudinga ukungenela kukahulumeni ukuze kuqiniswe iziyalezo zokukhipha imingcele. Naphezu kwalezi zinselele, isinqumo samisa isimiso sokuthi uMthetho - sisekelo awukuvumeli ukucwaswa kohlanga lukahulumeni, ngokuyisisekelo okululaza umphakathi nomthetho waseMelika.

Virginia Onothando: Ilungelo Lokushada

Ngo-1967, i-Loving v. Virginia yafika eNkantolo Ephakeme, eyathola umthetho weVirginia omelene nomthetho we-octive ungekho emthethweni. Ijaji eliyinhloko u-Earl Warren lathi umthetho weVirginia kanye nabanye abafana nawo abafezanga njongo enengqondo ngaphandle kokuqinisa ukucwasana kohlanga. Lelicala lalihilela uRichard noMildred Love, umbhangqwana wezinhlanga osuboshwe ngecala lobugebengu ngokuphula umthetho we-ravolunia.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, wayekholelwa ukuthi imithetho enqabela ukushada kwabantu bezinhlanga ezihlukahlukene yayiwukwephulwa okusobala kwe-Aumelt Protection Claus. INkantolo yaqaphela umshado njengelungelo eliyisisekelo elingenakulinganiselwa ngokwemithetho yobuhlanga. Lesi sinqumo salahla imithetho emelene nokungavumelani nezinhlanga emizweni eyishumi nesithupha, iqinisekisa ukuthi inkululeko yokushada nomuntu ozikhethelayo iyilungelo eliyisisekelo lomphakathi.

Izimiso ezamiswa kuLoving v. Virginia zadlulela ngalé kwemingcele yomshado esekelwe ngokohlanga. Esinqumoni sango-2015, i-Obergefell Court yaqeda ukulinganiselwa kwezwe, isithiyelo sikahulumeni esiphathelene nokuhlangana kwezingane. Ngakho, u-Obergefell wathi kuwukwephulwa koMthetho-sisekelo ukucwasa abantu ngokusekelwe ekufuneni kwabo ubulili uma befuna ukushada nomuntu wobulili obufanayo. Lokhu kubonisa indlela isivikelo samalungelo omphakathi esimiswe ngayo ukuze kuvikelwe abanye.

Amacala Amalungelo Omphakathi Nefa Lawo

Akuzona zonke izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme eziye zathuthukisa amalungelo omphakathi. i-Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3883, kwakuyiqembu lamacala amahlanu avelele lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States yathi khona iSichibiyelo seshumi nantathu neshumi nane asizange sinikeze iSivumelo sokunqanda ukucwaswa kwezinhlanga ngabantu ngabanye. Lesi sinqumo sabulala i-Civil Rights Act ka-1875, eyayizame ukunqabela ukucwasana kwezinhlanga ezindlini zomphakathi.

Isinqumo sangenisa ukuhlukaniswa okusakazekile kwabantu abansundu ezindlini, emsebenzini, nokuphila komphakathi okwabagcina bengena engxenyeni yesibili kulo lonke elase-United States kuze kube yilapho kumiswa umthetho wamalungelo abantu ngawo-1960. Lelicala libonisa ukuthi izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme zingawalinganisela amalungelo futhi ziwandise, ziqokomisa ukubaluleka kokuhlala beqaphile ekuvikeleni inkululeko yomthetho-sisekelo.

Ukuqonda lezithiyo kubalulekile ekuqapheleni ukulwela amalungelo omphakathi isikhathi eside nokubaluleka kwesenzo somthetho uma amakhambi ebonakala engafanele. UMthetho we-Civil Rights ka-1964 ekugcineni wafeza lokho okwakungeke kufezwe yikho uMthetho ka-1875, esebenzisa amandla kaKhongolose ukulawula ezentengiselwano zamazwe ahlukene kunokuthembela kuphela esiQondisweni se-14.

Inkululeko Yokuqalisa Yokuchithwa: Ukukhuluma, Ukunyathelisa, Nenkolo

New York Times v. Sullivan: Inkululeko Yephephandaba

ISichibiyelo Sokuqala namuhla singanikeza izinhlangano zemithombo yezindaba inkululeko enkulu, kodwa kwakungenjalo ngawo-1960 lapho amalungelo ezindaba ayevinjelwe kakhulu imithetho kahulumeni eyayivikela izibalo zomphakathi ekuhlawulweni nasekuhlanjalazweni. Indaba ka-1944 yeNew York Times v. Sullivan yashintsha le ndawo ngokuyisisekelo.

Icala lavela lapho iNew York Times ikhipha isikhangiso esisekela uMartin Luther King Jr. futhi igxeka iMontgomery, umnyango wamaphoyisa e-Alabama. UMontgomery Police L.B. Sullivan waqulula iTimes ngenxa yelishel, ecaphuna amaphutha amancane embhalweni wesikhangiso, njengasezikhathini zeNkosi eyaboshwa. Inkantolo yase-Alabama yakthama yaklomela u-Chollivan (R50,000) — okucishe kwayizigidi ezingu-5 ngo-2023.

Ukuze ibonise ukuthi imvume, isikhulu somphakathi kumelwe sibonise ukuthi lokho okwashiwo ngokumelene nabo kwenziwa ngenzondo yangempela, iNkantolo Ephakeme yanquma. Lendinganiso "yomuntu owenzile" idinga ubufakazi bokuthi ummangalelwa wayazi ukuthi inkulumo yakhe yayingamanga noma yenza ngokunganaki iqiniso. Lesisiqobo sivikela impikiswano yomphakathi eqinile nokugxekwa kwezikhulu zikahulumeni, siqaphela ukuthi amaphutha athile ayiqiniso awagwemeki enkulumweni zeningi.

Isinqumo seSullivan siqinisekisa ukuthi abezindaba bangafeza indima yabo njengokuhlolwa kwemibuso kahulumeni ngaphandle kokwesaba izahlulelo ezikhubazayo zamaphutha amancane. Lesivikelo sibalulekile ekuhloleni amaphephandaba okuhlola nasekulandiseni komphakathi, kuvumele izakhamuzi ukuba zithole ukwaziswa okudingekayo ukuze zihlanganyele ekusebenziseni intando yeningi ngolwazi.

UDes Moines: Umfundi Wamalungelo Okukhuluma

INkantolo Ephakeme yathi abafundi abawachithi amalungelo abo omthetho-sisekelo enkululeko yokukhuluma... esangweni lesikole" ecaleni lengqophamlando iTinker v. Des Moines (1969). Lelicala lalihilela abafundi ababefake izibambo ezimnyama esikoleni ukuze baphikise iMpi yaseVietnam futhi balengiswe ngenxa yokwenqaba ukuwasusa.

Ngenxa yalokho, iNkantolo yathola ukuthi inkulumo yabafundi yayingavinjelwa uma iphazamisa inqubo yemfundo. Ngenxa yokuthi kwakungekho bufakazi bokuphazamisa okunjalo, isikole sasiphula inkululeko yokukhuluma yokuHlaziya Kokuqala. Lesi sinqumo saqinisekisa ukuthi abafundi balondoloza amalungelo omthetho-mthetho esikoleni, nakuba lamalungelo angase alinganiswe ngokumelene nomsebenzi wemfundo wesikole.

I-Tinker isiyindaba eyinhloko kunoma yiziphi izinselele ezisemqoka kumalungelo eSichibiyelweni Sokuqala sesikole. Isinqumo siyaqaphela ukuthi izikole azizona izikhundla ezivikelayo zomthetho-sisekelo, nokuthi amalungelo abafundi kumelwe ahlonishwe ngisho nangaphakathi kwemfundo. Lesi simiso siye sathonya izindaba eziningi ezilandelayo ezihilela amagama abafundi, kusukela kumaphephandaba esikole kuya ku-ingosi yengxoxo ye-intanethi.

Amalungelo Okuzifihla Nenkululeko Yomuntu Siqu

Ilungelo Lomthetho - sisekelo Lokuba Wedwa

Nakuba igama elithi "privcy" lingaveli eMthethweni, iNkantolo ePhakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi amalungiselelo ahlukahlukene omthetho-sisekelo adala izindawo zomuntu siqu ezivikela inkululeko yomuntu siqu. Lamalungelo emfihlo aye athathwa kweyokuqala, eyesithathu, eyesine, eyesihlanu, neye-Ninth Isichibiyeli, kanye neSichibiyelo seSimemezelo se-Gray se-14 se-SCreated Claus.

Ilungelo lomuntu siqu lihlanganisa izinqumo eziningi zomuntu siqu, kusukela ekukhetheni ukuzala kuya ebuhlotsheni obuseduze. Ukuqaphela lamalungelo kubonisa isimiso sokuthi ezinye izinqumo zingezomuntu siqu futhi ziyisisekelo kangangokuthi uhulumeni akufanele aphazamise ukulunga okuphoqelelekile. Lo mthetho womthetho uyaqhubeka ushintsha njengoba ubuchwepheshe budala izinselele ezintsha zomuntu siqu kanye nokushintsha kwesimo sengqondo somphakathi.

ISichibiyelo Sesine Siyavikela

ISichibiyelo sesine sivikela izakhamuzi ekuphenyisweni okungenangqondo nasekuqulekeni, sifuna ukuba ukugcinwa komthetho kuthole imvume esekelwe ezizathwini ngaphambi kokuhlola impahla yomuntu siqu. Abafundi banokulindela okuncishisiwe kwezindaba zomuntu siqu esikoleni. INkantolo Ephakeme yanquma ukuthi amalungelo akhe awaphulwanga ngoba abafundi baye banciphisa amathemba abo ezindaba zomuntu siqu esikoleni, njengoba kusungulwe eNew Jersey v.T.L.O. (1985).

Lelicala libonisa ukuthi amalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu awaphelele kodwa kumelwe alinganiswe nezinye izithakazelo ezibalulekile, njengokuphepha kwesikole nesiyalo. INkantolo iye yaveza izimiso ezihlukahlukene zokuhlola lapho ukuphenya kunengqondo, icabangela izici ezifana nendawo yokufuna, ukungavumelani kwendlela yokufuna, kanye nokulunga kukahulumeni kokuhlola.

Ukuqonda iSichibiyelo Sesine kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba zazi ukuthi zingasenqaba nini ukufuna nokuthi lapho umthetho usebenza khona akuyidluli imingcele yomthetho - sisekelo.

Ubumbano Nokulinganisela Kwamandla

McCulloch v. Maryland: Federal Supremacy

Isinqumo se McCulloch samisa izimiso ezimbili ezibalulekile zomthetho-mthetho-sisekelo ezisaqhubeka namuhla: imibuso esikiselayo kanye nombuso omkhulu. Lelicala laqala lapho uMaryland ezama ukukhokhisa iBhange Lesibili lase-United States, futhi iNkantolo Ephakeme kwadingeka inqume ukuthi iSishaya - mthetho sasinegunya yini lokwakha ibhange lesizwe nokuthi imibuso ingakhokha yini intela.

Umbono kaMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall wasungula ukuthi uMkhandlu unamandla asikiselayo ngaphezu kwalawo abekwe ngokucacile eMthethweni, athathwe ku-Edict ne-Fanety Clause. Isinqumo futhi saqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni uphakeme kunomthetho kahulumeni ophikisanayo, uvimbela imibuso ukuba ingaphazamisani nemisebenzi engokomthetho kahulumeni. Lezizimiso zihlala ziyisisekelo sokuqonda ubuhlobo phakathi kohulumeni nohulumeni.

Imikhumbi yezentengiselwano i - “Gibbons ” i -“ steam ” i - “Claus Office ” i -“ Office ”

INkantolo yathi iyindima kahulumeni kahulumeni ukuba alawule ezentengiselwano nokuthi ohulumeni bezwe abanakukwazi ukusungula imithetho yabo yezentengiselwano elawulayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, iNkantolo yasungula incazelo ebanzi ye- "izentengiselwano," icabanga ukuthi leligama lalihlanganisa okungaphezu kokudayisa nokuthenga nje. Lencazelo ebanzi yeCommerce Claus Claus evumela uKhomishane ukuba axoxe ngezindaba zezomnotho zezwe futhi, kamuva, unqande ukucwasana ezindlini zomphakathi.

Ithonya leGibbons lisazwakala nanamuhla njengoba linikeza uhulumeni wezwe isisekelo esibanzi sokulawula ukuhwebelana kwezomnotho. Lombono omkhulu wamandla kahulumeni ezentengiselwano uye wasetshenziselwa ukuthethelela umehluko omkhulu womthetho kahulumeni, kusukela kwizimiso zendawo ezungezile kuya kwimithetho yamalungelo omphakathi, ebonisa indlela izincazelo zomthetho sisekelo wakuqala eziqhubeka ngayo zilawula ukubusa kwanamuhla.

Icala Elingokomlando Elathonya Ukuqonda Umthetho - sisekelo

UDkt Scott v. Sandford: Isifo Esisabekayo

Akuwona wonke amacala aphawulekayo amelela intuthuko ekwahluleleni. Isinqumo sikaDred Scott singesinye sesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme esidume kakhulu. IJaji eliyinhloko uRoger Brooke Taney wabhala umbono weningi, lapho iNkantolo yathi akukho muntu omnyama, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uyisigqila noma ukhululekile, ongaba isakhamuzi saseMelika. Lesi sinqumo saphika uDred Scott, indoda eyisigqila eyake yahlala emasimini akhululekile, ilungelo lokukhokha inkululeko yakhe enkantolo yombuso.

Wabusa ukuthi izigqila ziyimpahla, hhayi izakhamuzi, uphuca uMkhandlu igunya lokukhipha imithetho encisha abanikazi bezigqila zabo abantu ‘. ’ Isinqumo sazehlisa iMissouri yavumela ukuhlehla futhi ngokuphumelelayo ivimbela ukunqatshelwa kobugqila kunoma iyiphi indawo yase-U.Isinqumo sashisa izingxabano zezindawo futhi saba neqhaza ekugqashukeni kweMpi Yombango.

Ngemva kweMpi Yangaphakathi, lesisinqumo sakhishwa iziNguqulo zeshumi nane kuMthetho-sisekelo. Icala likaDred Scott lisebenza njengesikhumbuzo esiqinile sokuthi iNkantolo Ephakeme ayilona iphutha nokuthi izinguquko zomthetho ngokomthetho zingadingeka ukuze kulungiswe amaphutha okwahlulela. Ukuqonda lomlando kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziqonde ukubaluleka kokulungisa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kanye nokulwela ukugcwalisa isithembiso soMthetho-mthetho-sisekelo esilinganayo.

UPlesty v. Ferguson: Uhlukile Kodwa Uyalingana

Iminyaka engaphezu kweshumi ngemva kokuba kunqunywe i-Civil Rights Cases, iNkantolo yaqhubekela phambili ePlessy v. Ferguson ukubusa "ukuhlukaniswa kwezindawo zombuso ezihlala umphakathi futhi kwakuwumthetho ngokomthetho wezwe. Lesi sinqumo sa 1896 sasekela umthetho weLouisiana owawufuna ukuba abagibeli abamnyama nabamhlophe bahlukane, umise imfundiso "ehlukene kodwa elinganayo" eyayingathethelela ukuhlukaniswa iminyaka ecishe ibe ngamashumi ayisithupha.

UMahluleli uJohn Marshall Harlan waphikisa ukuthi umthetho kufanele uphathwe, esho ngokuphikisana okukodwa ukuthi, "embonweni woMthetho-sisekelo, ngokomthetho, akukho lelizwe eliphakeme, elibusayo, isigaba esibusayo sezakhamuzi. UMthetho-sisekelo wethu uyizimpumputhe zemibala, futhi awazi futhi akazinazi izigaba phakathi kwezakhamuzi. Ngokuqondene namalungelo omphakathi, zonke izakhamuzi ziyalingana phambi komthetho. Ukwahlukana kukaHarlan, nakuba kubekwe isigaba sakhe, kucaciswe izimiso ezizogcina zikhona eBrown v.

Isinqumo sePlesty senza amashumi eminyaka okucwaswa kwezwe nokuhlukaniswa kwemibono, sibonisa indlela izincazelo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ezingathuthukisa noma ziphazamise ngayo amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. Ukweqisa kwePasby kubonisa ukuthi ukuqonda okungokwemithetho kushintsha futhi ukuthi ukuphikelela kokungaqondi kungaholela ekulungiseni ukungalungi kwangesikhathi esidlule.

Ukuqonda Amalungelo Akho Omthetho - sisekelo

Inkululeko Yokukhuluma

ISichibiyelo sokuqala senkululeko yokukhuluma siphakathi kwenkululeko yaseMelika eyigugu kakhulu, kodwa ayiphelele. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaveza uvivinyo nezimfundiso ezihlukahlukene ukuze inqume ukuthi inkulumo ivikelwe nini nokuthi ingavinjelwa nini. Inkulumo evikelayo ihlanganisa amazwi ezombangazwe, imisebenzi yobuciko, inkulumo engokomfanekiso, ngisho nemibono ephambene noma engathandeki.

Nokho, izigaba ezithile zenkulumo azitholi sivikelo esitheni noma azinaso nhlobo isivikelo, kuhlanganise nezinsongo zangempela, ukugqugquzelwa kwesenzo sokungabi namthetho esisondelayo, inhlamba, ukuhlambalaza, nokukhohlisa.

Isivikelo sokukhuluma esikhululekile sisebenza kakhulu emithethweni kahulumeni, hhayi ekusithekeni komuntu siqu. Abaqashi bomuntu siqu, iziteshi zezokuxhumana, nezinye izinhlangano ezingezona ezohulumeni aziboshelwa yiSichibiyelo Sokuqala, nakuba zingase zithonywe ezinye izithiyo ezingokomthetho. Lomehluko ubalulekile ekuqondeni izinga lamalungelo okukhuluma emphakathini wanamuhla.

Ilungelo Lokuba Wedwa

Amalungelo omuntu siqu avikela abantu ekugxambukeni kohulumeni okungadingekile ezindabeni zabo siqu. Lamalungelo ahlanganisa izinqumo eziphathelene nobuhlobo bomkhaya, ukuzalana, ukuzibusa, kanye nabangane abasondelene. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yaqaphela ukuthi izinqumo ezithile zingezomuntu siqu kangangokuthi abantu kumelwe bakhululeke ukuze bazenze ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa uhulumeni.

Isivikelo sangasese sidlulela ezindaweni ezingokoqobo, ekwazisweni komuntu siqu, nasezokuxhumana. ISichibiyelo sesine sidinga imvume yokuphenywa kwezindlu eziningi nemithelela yomuntu siqu, kuyilapho imithetho ehlukene kahulumeni nombuso ilawula indlela izinhlangano ezizimele nezingaqoqa ngayo, zingasebenzisa futhi zihlanganyele ukwaziswa komuntu siqu. Njengoba intuthuko yobuchwepheshe, umthetho wemfihlo uyaqhubeka uphendukela ekuxazululeni izinselele ezintsha njengokuhlola imishini, ukuqoqwa kokwaziswa, kanye nokwaziswa okuphathelene nomzimba.

Izakhamuzi kufanele ziqonde ukuthi amalungelo ezindaba zomuntu siqu ayahluka kuye ngomongo womongo. Abantu ngokuvamile balindele ukuba abantu babe nezindaba zomuntu siqu eziningi kunasezindaweni zomphakathi, futhi eminye imisebenzi ingase ithole isivikelo esincane kunabanye. Ukwazi lokhu kuqonda kusiza abantu ukuba benze izinqumo eziqondile ngokuvikela isikhathi sabo somuntu siqu nokuphula kwabo okungaba inselele.

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Ngaphansi KoMthetho

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane seSiphendulo se-Unimetic Protection Claus senqabela ukunqabela noma yimuphi umuntu isivikelo esilinganayo semithetho. Leli lungiselelo liye laba isisekelo sokubekela ubandlululo olusekelwe ohlwini lohlanga, ubulili, imvelaphi yesizwe, nezinye izici. INkantolo Ephakeme isebenzisa amazinga ahlukene okuhlola kuye ngohlobo lohlelo oluhilelekile.

Izindawo zohlanga zithola "ukuhlola okucubungulisiwe," indinganiso efuna kakhulu yokubukeza, edinga uhulumeni ukuze abonise ukuthi ukuhlelwa kwazo kufeza isithakazelo esishukumisayo futhi kuhlongozwa kancane ukuze kufezeke leso sithakazelo. Ukuhlelwa kohlobo oluthile kwamukelwa "ukuhlolwa okusemqoka," kudinga isithakazelo esibalulekile sikahulumeni kanye nobuhlobo obuqinile phakathi kohlelo nenzalo. Ezinye izigaba zamukela "ukubukezwa kwesisekelo esimisiwe," ifuna kuphela ukuba ukwenziwa kwalokhu kuhloselwe injongo esemthethweni kahulumeni.

Ukuqonda izimiso ezilinganayo zokuvikela kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziqaphele ubandlululo olungekho emthethweni futhi zisekele ukuphathwa ngendlela engakhethi.

Amalungelo Enqubo Afanele

IziHlulo zeNguqulo zesihlanu nezeshumi nane ziqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni ngeke uphuce abantu ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho. Inqubo efanele inezakhi ezingokwesiko nezingaqondakali. Inqubo efanelekile idinga izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni aphuce othile izithakazelo ezivikelekile, njengesaziso nethuba lokuzwa.

Inqubo eyisici efanelekile elawulayo ivikela amalungelo athile ayisisekelo ekungeneleni kukahulumeni kungakhathaliseki ukuthi kusetshenziswa izinqubo ezinjani. Lamalungelo ahlanganisa inkululeko eshiwo ngokucacile kuMthetho-sisekelo kanye namalungelo angangeniwanga abhekwa njengebalulekile enkululekweni. INkantolo Ephakeme iye yawaqaphela amalungelo adingekile adingekile okushada, ukukhulisa abantwana, ukwenqaba ukwelashwa okungafunwa, nezinye izinqumo zomuntu siqu.

Abafundi banelungelo lamalungelo athile afanele enqubo. INkantolo Ephakeme yanqumela abafundi, ithi uma nje umbuso usunikeze imfundo kuzo zonke izakhamuzi zawo, awunakubaphuca ngaphandle kokuqinisekisa inqubo efanelekile yokuvikela, njengoba isungulwe kuyi-Gos v. Lopez (1975). Lesi simiso sidlulela ngalé kwemfundo ukuze kuzuze noma yisiphi isithakazelo esivikelekile kuhulumeni.

Ukuziphendukela Okuqhubekayo Kwamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

Izinselele Zanamuhla Zezenzakalo Ezikhona

Inkantolo ePhakeme iphinde idlulise futhi ngezinye izikhathi idlulise izinqumo zangaphambili, ibonise ukushintsha izindinganiso zezenhlalo, ukuqonda okusha okuyiqiniso, noma amafilosofi okwahlulela ahlukene. Nakuba isimiso sokubuka (ukuhlola kabusha) sikhuthaza ukuqina nokubikezela, iNkantolo iye yaqaphela ukuthi ezinye izehlakalo zingase zibe nephutha kangangokuba kumelwe zigumbuqelwe.

Amashumi eminyaka amuva nje kuye kwaba nezimpikiswano ezibalulekile ngendima efanele yesibonelo nokuthi kufanele ixazululwe nini. Lezimpikiswano zithinta amalungelo ayisisekelo futhi ziveza ukungavumelani okukhulu ngencazelo yomthetho-sisekelo. Izakhamuzi kufanele ziqonde ukuthi amalungelo aqashelwa iNkantolo Ephakeme angase ahloselwe ukucatshangelwa kabusha, okwenza ukuba ukuqapha nokuqapha kuqhubeke kubalulekile.

Ubuchwepheshe Namalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

Intuthuko yezobuchwepheshe idala izinselele ezintsha zokusebenzisa izimiso zomthetho-sisekelo ezisungulwe ngezikhathi ezihlukene. Ukuxhumana nge-odatic, i-GPS, ukuqamba ubuso, ukuma kwemitapo, nezinye izinto zobuchwepheshe kuphakamisa imibuzo emisha ephathelene nemfihlo, ukukhuluma ngokukhululekile, namanye amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. Izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi isivikelo somthetho sisekelo esingokwesiko sisebenza kanjani kulezi zimo ezintsha.

Ngokwesibonelo, ingabe iSichibiyelo Sesine sidinga umthetho ogunyaza ukugcinwa komthetho ukuze kutholakale ukwaziswa okuphathelene nocingo?

Indima Yomthetho - sisekelo KaHulumeni

Nakuba lesi sihloko sigxila emalungelweni omthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni, umthetho-sisekelo wezwe uvikela futhi inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye. Amalungiselelo omthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni angase anikeze isivikelo esikhulu kunesizwe sawo, futhi izinkantolo zikahulumeni zingachaza ulimi olufanayo ngokwehlukile kunezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Ezinye izifunda-zifunda zinezivikelo ezicacile zezindaba zomuntu siqu, isiqinisekiso esikhulu sokukhuluma, noma izinhlelo zesivikelo eziqine kakhulu ezilinganayo kunoMthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni.

Izakhamuzi kufanele ziqaphele kokubili isivikelo somthetho - sisekelo kahulumeni nokahulumeni, njengoba umthetho kahulumeni ungase unikeze amakhambi lapho umthetho kahulumeni ungawasebenzisi. ukuhlaziywa komthetho - sisekelo woMbuso kuye kwaba okubaluleke ngokwengeziwe njengoba abameleli befuna ukuvikela amalungelo angase angatholi sivikelo esanele ngaphansi kwezincazelo zomthetho - sisekelo wamanje.

Indlela Izakhamuzi Ezingawavikela Futhi Ziwamelele Ngayo Amalungelo Azo

Ukwazi Lapho Amalungelo Ephulwa Khona

Ukuqonda amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo kuyisinyathelo sokuqala sokuwavikela. Izakhamuzi kufanele zizifundise ngamalungelo azo ezimweni ezivamile njengokusebenzelana nomthetho ophoqelelwe, izingxabano emsebenzini, uhulumeni uzuzisa izinqumo, kanye nezimiso zemfundo. Ukwazi ukuthi isivikelo siyini kusiza abantu ukuba baqaphele lapho lezo zivikelo zeqiwe.

Lapho kuvela ukwephulwa kwamalungelo, amakhambi ahlukahlukene angase atholakale. lokhu kuhlanganisa ukukhononda nezinhlangano zikahulumeni, ukufuna ukubukezwa kokwahlulela izenzo zikahulumeni, ukuphishekela ukumangalelwa kwamalungelo omphakathi nokusekela izinguquko zesimiso. Ikhambi elifanele lixhomeke ohlotsheni lokwephulwa kwamalungelo ahilelekile.

Ukubaluleka Kokuhlanganyela Isivumelwano Sesigqi

Amalungelo oMthetho-sisekelo awakona ukuziqeda. Adinga ukuzivikela ngokuthembisana komphakathi, kuhlanganise nokuvota, ukuxhumana nabameleli abakhethiwe, ukuthatha iqhaza ezinqubweni zokuphendula zomphakathi, nokusekela izinhlangano ezisekela inkululeko yomphakathi. Amacala amaningi angokomthetho aqala ngabantu abenqaba ukwamukela amalungelo abo futhi baqhubeke iminyaka eminingi bewavuna.

Izakhamuzi zingasekela futhi ukuzimela kokwahlulela nokubusa komthetho ngokuqonda indima yezinkantolo ekuvikeleni amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo.

Imithombo Yemfundo Ethé Xaxa

Izinhlangano eziningi zinikeza imithombo yokuqonda amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, kuhlanganise ne-American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), iBill of Rights Institute, iNational Constitution Center, nezinhlangano ezihlukahlukene zosizo olungokomthetho. Lamaqembu anikeza izinto zemfundo, abaqondisi bakho abakwaziyo ukuzenzela, kanye nosizo olungokomthetho kulabo abamalungelo abo ephulwe.

Ukufunda izinqumo ezingokoqobo zenkantolo kunikeza ukuqonda okuyisisekelo samacala abalulekile futhi kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziqonde indlela izimiso zomthetho - sisekelo ezisetshenziswa ngayo emaqinisweni athile. Amacala amaningi adingidwa nasezincwadini, ezibhalweni zezincwadi, nasezinhlelweni zemfundo ezenza umlando womthetho - sisekelo utholakale kubantu abalalele izakhamuzi.

Izikole zomthetho, amayunivesithi, nezinhlangano zomphakathi ngokuvamile zinikeza izifundo nezinhlelo zomthetho - sisekelo namalungelo omphakathi.

Izinyathelo Eziyinhloko Zokuvikela Inkululeko Yakho

Amacala eNkantolo Ephakeme aye amisa uhlelo olungokomthetho lwenkululeko yomuntu ngamunye eMelika. Kusukela elungelweni elingokomthetho ukuya ekumeleni ezicabeni zobugebengu kuya enkululekoni yokukhuluma nesivikelo esifanayo ngaphansi komthetho, lezi zinqumo zichaza ubuhlobo phakathi kwezakhamuzi nohulumeni. Ukuqonda lamacala kunika abantu amandla okuqaphela amalungelo abo, ukuqaphela ukuphulwa komthetho, nokuthatha isinyathelo sokuvikela inkululeko engokomthetho.

Amalungelo abaluleke kakhulu asungulwe amacala aphawula izenzakalo zihlanganisa:

  • Inkululeko yokukhuluma neyokunyathelisa - Ivikelwe yiSichibiyelo sokuqala nezenzakalo ezinjengeNew York Times v. Sullivan noTinker v.Des Moines, ivumela ukuphikisana okukhulu nogxeko lukahulumeni
  • uqobo lwemfihlo [ – ithathwe kumalungiselelo amaningi omthetho-sisekelo futhi ivikele izinqumo zomuntu siqu ekuphazanyisweni uhulumeni
  • Isivikelo esiphezulu ngaphansi komthetho - Siqinisekiswe yiSichibiyelo seshumi nane nese-oyilethiwe emacaleni anjengeBrown v. Board of Education and Loving v. Virginia, enqabela ubandlululo olusekelwe ohlwini lohlanga nakwezinye izici ezivikelwe
  • Ilindelekile amalungelo okusebenza [ - Ukufuna izinqubo ezilungile ngaphambi kokuba uhulumeni unciphise abantu ngokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, kanye nokuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo ekuphazanyisweni nguhulumeni
  • Inqubo yomthetho ivikela[--Ihlanganisa ilungelo leseluleko (Gideon v. Wainwright), iMiranda izixwayiso (i-Mira v. Arizona), kanye nomthetho wokuhlukanisa (Mapp v. Ohio), uqinisekisa ukuphathwa ngokufaneleyo esimisweni sokwahlulela komthetho
  • Ukuzivikela ekufuneni okungacabangeki kanye nokuquleka – kuqinisekiswe yiSichibiyelo sesine kanye nokufuna izimfuneko ezisekelwe ekuhlolweni okungase kwenzeke

Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi zisebenza ngokugcinwa komthetho, ziqondisa isimiso semfundo, zikhuluma ngokukhululekile, noma zenza izinqumo, izakhamuzi ziyazuza ezivikelweni zomthetho - sisekelo ezivezwa ngezenzakalo eziphawulekayo.

Nokho, amalungelo awakona ukuzilwela futhi adinga ukuzivikela okuphelele. Izakhamuzi kumelwe zihlale zazi ngesivikelo sazo somthetho-sisekelo, ziqaphele lapho lezo zivikelo zephulwa, futhi zithathe isinyathelo esifanelekile sokulwela amalungelo azo. Lokhu kungahilela ukufuna usizo olungokomthetho, ukukhononda, ukuhlanganyela ekufuneni amalungelo omphakathi, noma izinhlangano ezisekela inkululeko yomphakathi.

Incazelo yeNkantolo Ephakeme yamalungelo omthetho-mthetho iyaqhubeka iguqula, ibonakalisa ukushintsha kwezindinganiso zomphakathi, ubuchwepheshe obusha, namafilosofi okwahlulela ahlukene. Okuhlala kulokhu kuyisidingo sezakhamuzi ukuba ziqonde amalungelo azo futhi zihlanganyele enqubweni yentando yeningi elawula umthetho womthetho-sisekelo. Ngokufunda emacaleni angokomthetho-sisekelo nangokuhlala zihlangene nezimpikiswano zamanje zomthetho-sisekelo, izakhamuzi zingasiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi isithembiso senkululeko nobulungisa kubo bonke baba ngokoqobo kubo bonke abantu baseMelika.

Ukuze uthole ukwaziswa okwengeziwe ngamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo namacala eNkantolo ePhakeme, vakashela i- U.S. Courts Educational Resources, iSikhungo soMthetho-sisekelo wesizwe [[, noma Brennan Center yeJaji [[. Lezinhlangano zinikeza imithombo ebanzi yokuqonda indlela izigebetho ezivikela ngayo inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye nomthetho we-America.

Ukuqonda amacala abalulekile akuyona nje indlela yemfundo kuphela, kodwa ulwazi olubalulekile kunoma isiphi isakhamuzi esifuna ukuvikela inkululeko yaso futhi sihlanganyele ngokugcwele ekubuseni ngentando yeningi kwaseMelika. Ngokwazi izisekelo ezingokomthetho zamalungelo omthetho-sisekelo, izakhamuzi zingawavikela kangcono lawomalungelo, zigcine uhulumeni unecala, futhi ziqiniseke ukuthi izimiso zenkululeko nobulungisa zihlala izizukulwane ezizayo.