Isingeniso: Ifa Elihlala Njalo LeSichibiyelo Se - 14

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane soMthetho-sisekelo we-United States singenye yamalungiselelo ashintsha kakhulu nane asemthethweni waseMelika. Sandford isinqumo, esathi phakathi nenkathi yokuvuselelwa kwezakhiwo, lokhu kulungiswa kwaklanyelwa ukusungula amalungelo abantu ababegqilaziwe ngaphambili nokugumbuqela [[FLT]] i-Dred Scott v. [[FLT] [FLD] isinqumo [1], esathi ama-Afrika angeke abe izakhamuzi. Ngalé kwenjongo yawo yokuqala, iSiphendulo se 1450 seSinyuko siye saba ithuluzi elinamandla lokuthuthukisa inqubo, inqubo edingayo, kanye nelungelo lokuba nezakhamuzi zonke eUnited States. Imibango yaso yezentengo yaso, i-Clastmast Clascss [ist] ibuye ibe isisekelo sesisekelo somthetho wanamuhla, futhi i-ulticnermentation, i-Ault.

Umlando Ongokomlando: Ukuvuselelwa Nesidingo Sesiqinisekiso Somthetho - sisekelo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane savela ngokuqondile enhlekeleleni yeMpi Yombango nenkathi egcwele ukunqoba kwe-Union. Ngemva kokunqoba kwe-Conferate, imibuso ye-Conferate yavuselelwa eMhlanganweni ngaphansi kwezimo ezazifuna ukuba isebenzise imithetho emisha eqaphela ukuphela kobugqila. Nokho, izishaya-mthetho waseningizimu zasheshe zamisa “Imithetho Emnyama” eklanyelwe ukuvimbela inkululeko yaseMelika futhi ibaphoqelele ukuba babe sesimweni esifana nesebugqilini. I-U. i-U.S. i-Commission yadlulisela umthetho we-vocation Act ka-real Act ka-19666, kodwa ukungabaza ngomthetho wayo womthetho waholela abalweli bemithetho ukuba bangene ezimisweni zomthetho womthetho.

Ukunqoba Ukumelana Nomongameli

UMongameli u-Andrew Johnson, i-Democrat yaseTennessee, wamelana ngokuqinile nokuphoqelelwa kwamalungelo omphakathi futhi wathatha i-Civil Rights Act ka-1866. UKhongolo lwathatha indawo yakhe ye-veto, kodwa isimo sezulu sezombangazwe saqhubeka siguquguquka. ISichibiyelo se 144th sabunjwa yikomiti ekhethekile ye-Joint Committee on Convention(a comgationaligational komiti (indlela yokufaka isivikelo samalungelo omphakathi esingaphezu kokufinyelela imingcele enyakazayo yezekwenqamuka kweze izinselele ezinkulu zezombangazwe nezehlulelo. Isekugqizingeniswe ukumiswa kwemibuso emithathu namashumi amane ehlangene, kuhlanganise neyangaphambili yeConferatehated, eyaphoqelelwa ukuba ibe yisimo sokuthunyelwa kwemvume ku-Union Union. Le nqubo yaqedwa ngo-1868, ukubekwa kwesilinganiso esiyisisekelo sezwe phakathi sikahulumeni.

Ukuvukela Kwendawo Ngokufanelekile

Phambi kweSichibiyelo seshumi nane leSichibiyelo sezemvelo, ubuzwe babuchazwa kakhulu umthetho wezwe. Isigwebo sokuqala sokulungisa u-Citizenshi Claus(*) sabusa .Dred Scott ngokumemezela ukuthi “bonke abantu abazalwayo noma abadalwe ngokwemvelo e-United States, futhi abangaphansi kwegunya labo, bayizakhamuzi zase-United States kanye noHulumeni lapho behlala khona.” Lesi simiso sabantwana abafanelekiswe [ besizwe saseMelika besiyitshebe lomthetho waseMelika kusukela ngaleso sikhathi. Sanikezwa ngokushesha ukuba sibe yizakhamuzi cishe ingxenye yesigidi esisanda kukhululwa abantu base-Afirika futhi sasungula isisekelo sazo zonke izinhlelo ezilandelanayo zokuvikela kanye nenqubo efanele.

Amalungiselelo Ayinhloko ESichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane sinezingxenye ezinhlanu, kodwa amalungiselelo ayisisekelo atholakala engxenyeni 1. Lengxenye iphulwa yaba izigaba ezintathu eziyinhloko, ngayinye enendima ehlukile nomlando ocebile wokuchaza kokwahlulela.

Ukuba Izakhamuzi

Njengoba kuphawuliwe, i-Citizenship Claus inikeza ukuthi wonke umuntu ozalwe e-United States (ohlukile kwezingane zamanxusa angaphandle kanye nalabo abazalwa yizimpi ezinamandla) uyisakhamuzi sase-U.S. lesi sigqebhezana siqinisekisa futhi ukuthi izakhamuzi ezingokwemvelo zinesimo esingokomthetho njengezakhamuzi ezazalwayo. Yayisenkabeni yesinqumo seNkantolo ePhakeme e United States v. Vaello-Madero, esekela amandla eSikhungo sombuso sokunikeza izinzuzo ezakhamuzini zase-U.S. kuyilapho izibopha i-2021 ezakhamuzi zase-R Rico.

Inqubo KaClaus Elindelekile

I-The Bay Process Claus ephawula ukuthi akukho mbuso ozokhipha “noma yimuphi umuntu wokuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla, ngaphandle kwenqubo efanelekile yomthetho.” Lomusho uchazwe njengonezilinganiso ezimbili ezihlukene: inqubo efanelekile (izinqubo zikahulumeni lapho ethatha isinyathelo ngokumelene nomuntu) nenqubo efanelekile (ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo athile ayisisekelo kuhulumeni, ngisho noma izinqubo zilandelwa). Inqubo efanelekile yelungelo lokufihla iyimfihlo, ilungelo lokushada, ilungelo lokuvimbela ukukhishwa kwesisu (kuze kufike [[FLT:] . Jackson’s Health Organizations Office [FLD:1] incincane [iekuhlelekakhulu]. Inhlangano yabesifazane yeze kwesokudla isetshenziswe futhi ekumelaneni nelungelo lokuvimbela ukukhishwa kwezisu. Ilungelo lokubulala ukukhishwa kwezisu.[Foctive:]

Isivikelo SikaClaus Esilinganayo

I-Umeal Protection Claus iyala ukuthi akukho mbuso ozothi “uqaphele noma yimuphi umuntu ophakathi kwegunya lakhe isivikelo esifanayo semithetho.” Lokhu kuyithuluzi elinamandla kakhulu lokulwa nobandlululo. Kudinga ukuba abantu ngokufanayo baphathwe ngokufanayo. Izinkantolo zisebenzisa amazinga ahlukene okuhlola kuye ngohlelo oluxhomekeka kulokhu: ukuhlola ngokuqinile ngemvelaphi yobuzwe, negebe; ukucubungula phakathi kwescs bswn nokwesifabe sobulili; ukubukeza isisekelo seminye imikhakha. Isivikelo esilinganayo sasiyisisekelo esingokomthetho se [[FLT:][5].[5], [FLT], [FLT] [12]

Uphawu Lwezinkantolo Eziphakeme Oluchaza Isichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Amandla eqiniso eSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane aye abonakala ezinkantolo.ngezansi kunezinye zezindaba ezinethonya kakhulu eziye zathonya incazelo yaso.

Amacala endlu yokubulala (1873)

Encazelweni yokuqala eyinhloko yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane, iNkantolo Ephakeme yachaza ngokuncane amalungelo noma ama-Immunities Claus (enye ingxenye yesiqephu 1) futhi yathi yayivikela kuphela iqoqo elilinganiselwe lamalungelo kahulumeni, hhayi ububanzi bamalungelo kahulumeni owenziwe ngempoqo. Lesi sinqumo sawanciphisa kakhulu amathuba ombhalo futhi sasusa kakhulu ubunzima bokulungisa inqubo engokomthetho neSivikeli sika-Claus. Ngaphezu kwekhulu leminyaka, amalungelo noma iziNkathi ze-Immunity Claus wabeka isigaba esiqinile kakhulu.

UPlessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Esinqumweni esinedumela elibi esasiyohlupha inkantolo yaseMelika cishe iminyaka engamashumi ayisithupha, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso “ehlukene kodwa elinganayo”. INkantolo yathi i-Ecumity Protection Claus ayiphulwanga ngemithetho kahulumeni efuna ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ezikhungweni zomphakathi, uma nje izakhiwo zazilingana. Lesi sinqumo sanikeza umthetho - sisekelo umthetho ku-Jim Crow ngaphesheya kweNingizimu.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

IJaji eliyinhloko u-Flust Earl Warren wanikeza umbono ovumelanayo wokuthi “ohlukene kodwa olinganayo” akanandawo emfundweni yomphakathi. INkantolo yathola ukuthi ubandlululo lobuhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi lwalimaza ngokuhlala njalo ngokwengqondo kubantwana baseMelika futhi lwaphula iSivikelo esilinganayo sika-Clausle. Brown[[ [awuzange] nje kuphela uphendulele [ Phoselve [[[FLT]] ] kodwa futhi wahlukanisa nenhlangano yanamuhla elwela amalungelo omphakathi futhi wabeka islawuthi ekulungeni lokuvikela amalungelo ayisisekelo.

Uthando Virginia (1967)

Inkantolo yawisa imithetho kahulumeni evimbela ukushada ngokwezinhlanga, isho ukuthi imithetho enjalo yayiphula kokubili i-Curtive Programme and Amement Clauses. IJaji eliyinhloko u-Earl Warren wabhala ukuthi “inkululeko yokushada, noma ukungashadi, umuntu wolunye uhlanga uhlala nomuntu futhi akanakuphambaniswa noMbuso.” Lelicala landisa izimiso ze- Brown[ ebuhlotsheni obuseduze kakhulu bomuntu siqu futhi lahlela indlela yezinqumo zomshado ezilinganayo kamuva.

URade (1973)

Esinqumweni esiphikiswana kakhulu, iNkantolo yaqaphela ilungelo lowesifazane lokukhetha ukukhipha isisu njengengxenye yelungelo lokuvikela i-Century Claus. Roe yamisa uhlelo olulinganiselwe olwalinganisela isithakazelo sikahulumeni empilweni kamama nasebuntwaneni nenkululeko yowesifazane. Nakuba [FLT]] [i-FLT] yabekwa phezu kwe-droms [[FLT:] Dobs. v.Adown's Health Organization [FLT:][20]] [20], ihlala iyisibonelo esiphawulekayo senqubo efanelekile yokuzingasese.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Esinqumweni esibanzi, iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi imibhangqwana efanayo engongokobulili inelungelo eliyisisekelo lokushada ngaphansi kwe-Cult Programme and Aumement Clauses. Umbono weningi likaJaji uAnthony Kennedy wagcizelela isithunzi nenkululeko yokuzibusa kwemibhangqwana efanayo engosasini, ihlanganisa umshado nezindinganiso eziyisisekelo zesizwe zenkululeko nokulingana. Obergefell[ inguphawu oluyingqophaza phambili ekunweni kwenkululeko yesizwe.

Ithonya Ezinhlanganweni Zamalungelo Omphakathi

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane siye saba isikhali esiyinhloko esingokomthetho ekulweleni ukulingana ezimbazweni eziningi zokuzichaza. phakathi kwezinye, ukuvumelana kwazo ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene kuye kwavumela abashisekeli ukuba bathembele kuso ukuze kukhishwe ubulungisa bobuhlanga, ukulingana kwabobulili obufanayo, kanye namalungelo e - LGBTQ.

Inhlangano Yamalungelo Abantu Yawo - 1950 Nawo - 1960

Abaholi abanjengoMartin Luther King Jr. nezinhlangano ezinjengeNaACP Legal Defense Fund basebenzisa iSichibiyelo seshumi nane ukubekela inselele imvume engokomthetho, imingcele yokuvota, nobandlululo ezindlini zomphakathi. Inguquko yanikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho somthetho wenani lamaLungu ka-1964 nomthetho we-Voting Rights Act ka-1965. Impumelelo yalenhlangano ekufakeni i-Ex Protect Clausle yabonisa ikhono lokuguqula inguquko yezenhlalakahle ngomthetho womthetho.

Amalungelo Abesifazane Nokulingana Kwabantu Abangenasizwe

Nakuba iSichibiyelo seshumi nane ekuqaleni singadluleli nakwabesifazane, abashisekeli bamashumi amabili namashumi amabili namashumi amabili baphikisa ngempumelelo ukuthi ubandlululo olusekelwe ebulilini luphula i-Enciliture Protection Claus. Reed v. Reed (1971], iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela isilinganiso sokuhlola ubulili okokuqala. Lezi zimo zavula umnyango wendlela ehlukile yokuphatha amadoda nabesifazane ngokwezinsikamela isisekelo esinengqondo. Kamuva, Craig v. Boren[FLT][FLT][3] [7]], iNkanto ethatha isilinganiso esiphakathi sokwahlulwa ubufana. Lezi zimo zecala lokucatshalwa komsebenzi, ukucwa kwemfundo, ukuhlukaniswa komthetho.

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo Nokulingana Komshado

Kusukela ku- Romer v. Evans (1996] kuya ku- Lawrence v. Texas [2003] [kusukela ku-]] -Obergefell[, abasekeli baye balokhu benxusa iSiphendulo seGenethiwe we-intshiya [i-GLT]] ukuvikela isivikelo sobulili nobulili. Isiqinisekiso sesivikelo se-andex's se-active se-dentine siye saba impikiswano eyisihluthulelo emelene nemithetho yomthetho yokubulala ubugebengu, ngokuqaphela ukuthi imithetho ehlasela i-LGTQ+ abantu bahluleka ngisho nokucubukisa i-tence. Namuhla, i-Genethdition iyaqhubeka iyisiqinisekiso se-emperectionment elungele ukuvision, ukunikeza amalungelo elungele ukuvuse-ezwa, ukufaneleka.

Izinselele Nezimpikiswano Ezichazwa Namuhla

Naphezu kokwamukelwa kwayo kabanzi njengethonya lobulungisa, iSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane sinezimpikiswano.

Isenzo Esiqinisayo

Isivikelo sika Claus esilinganayo siye saba semqoka enkulu empikiswaneni yokuthi uvuma isinyathelo semfundo nomsebenzi. Izembe zaseYunivesithi yaseCalifornia v. Bakke [[FLT] [1988], iNkantolo Ephakeme yathi izibalo zohlanga zazingavumelani nemibono yobuhlanga kodwa ukuthi uhlanga lungabhekwa njengento eyodwa evumelwayo. Kamuva njenge [[FLT:] v. Bollinger [2003] [2003]] isekela ukuvukelwa kwemizwa yezinhlanga ngenxa yezithakazelo zezithakazelo, kodwa iNkanto ikhula ngokuthanda ukungabazeka. [FLD:] Izimo ze-Activess.[3][3]

Ukuba Izakhamuzi Ngokufanele Nokuthuthela Kwelinye Izwe

Isiqinisekiso sobuzibulo somphakathi uClausde siye sabekelwa inselele yilabo abaphikisa ngokuthi abantwana babafuduki abangabhaliwe “abathobelanga ubukho bamazwe” e-United States. Iziphakamiso eziningi neziqondiso zezikhulu ziye zazama ukuvimbela lencazelo, kodwa umbono ongokomthetho okhona usuka United States v. Wong Kim Ark [1898] [8], ukuthi bonke abantu abazalelwe e-U.S.

Ukuba Umuntu Onesibopho NeSichibiyelo Seshumi Nane

Kuchungechunge lwezinqumo eziphikiswayo, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yandisa iSichibiyelo seshumi nane seSichibiyelo ezinhlanganweni. Kusukela [ku- Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroup Co. (1886), iNkantolo yaqaphela ukuthi izinkampani “zinelungelo lokuvikela inqubo kanye nesivikelo esilinganayo. Le ncazelo iye yasetshenziselwa ukuvikela amalungelo enkampanini futhi, Citns United. FEC[20]], ukushaya imingcele ezinkonzweni zezombangazwe ezizimele. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi le nqubo ikhuphule ukwanda kwempahla yezentengiselwano.

Ikusasa Lenqubo Engaqondakali Kakhulu

Ukugumbuqelwa kwe- Roba kuma-Dobs [[FLT]] uphakamise imibuzo ngokuphathelene namandla enqubo efunwayo. Umbono wabaningi ku- [[FLT]] [[FLT:]] ugcizelela ukuthi ilungelo lokukhipha isisu alisekelwenga kakhulu emlandweni noma esingokwesiko, ufaka ukungabaza ngamalungelo angagunyaziwe njengakuvimbela inzalo, ubuhlobo obusondeleneyo obusondeleneyo, ngisho nomshado. Izazi ezingokomthetho kanye nezisekelayo manje ziphikisana ngokuthi inqubo yeNkakhulu yezenzwe ezifanele. Izenguquko zesikhathi esizayo ayiqiniseki.

Isiphetho: Isichibiyelo Esiphilayo Sesizwe Esishintshayo

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane asisona isisekelo esiqinile sesikhumba; siwumthetho-sisekelo onamandla oye wavumelana nokuqonda okungalingani nenkululeko eUnited States. Kusukela ekuqaleni kwawo emlotheni wempi yombango kuya ekusebenzeni kwayo enkathini ye-amanani, ukulungisa kuye kwaba yindawo yokulwela izinhloso eziphakeme kakhulu zesizwe. Izimemezelo zawo ziyaqhubeka zinxuswa ezimweni ezihilela amalungelo okuvota, unya lwamaphoyisa, ubulungisa bezomnotho, nemfundo. Njengabafundisi nabafundi, ukuhileleka kweNguquko ye 144 yeMinyaka kusho ukuxazululwa kwemibuzo eyisisekelo ngokuqondene nomphakathi, lokho okungamandla ekhona, nendlela umthetho ongaba yithuluzi lokukhulula nokuvimbela. Ukuqonda lokhu akubalulekile nje kuphela ngenxa yolwazi oluvamile kodwa ukuhlanganyela kwemithetho esemthethweni.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola Izinqolobane zeNkathi Yogcino-mlando zesizwe ekhasini leSichibiyelo seshumi nane , [[FLT:]Cornell Legional Information’s Institute’s , kanye [FLT:] neqoqo lezehlulelo lecala leNkantolo ePhakeme ukuchaza i-actment.