Ifulegi Yohlobo Lwe - Federalism

Federalism, ukuhlukaniswa kombuso phakathi kukahulumeni wesizwe nohulumeni bezwe, kwakha isisekelo sesimiso sezombangazwe sase-United States. Lesi sakhiwo, esihlanganiswe eMthethweni-sisekelo wase-U.S., sidala ukuhlangana okunamandla lapho izinqumo ezenziwa khona eWashington, D.C., zinyakaza khona phakathi kwezinhloko- dolobha namahholo edolobha. Abafundi nabafundisi, beqonda indlela imibuso yezwe enesimo nesimiso sendawo esiphansi esilawulwayo esisezweni. Lokhu kudinga ukuthatha incazelo egcwele yedemo-democricial. Umthetho-sisekelo unikeza imibuso yezwe ukuba ihlukane njengemali ewukotini, ukumemezela impi, nokuqondisa ezinye izakhiwo zezentengiselwano yezentengiselwano. Lokhu kuqondana akuhlangani; ukushintshana kwezombangazwe, ukuncintisana kwezentengo yezentengo yezombangazwe, nokuhlola kwezenhlalakahle yezwezwe.

Amalungiselelo Ayinhloko Omthetho - sisekelo

Izigaba eziningana zomthetho-sisekelo zichaza imingcele yegunya likahulumeni. I-Suprematy Claus Claus (Artle VI, Claus 2) imisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni uphakeme wezwe, incazelo yemithetho kahulumeni ayinakuphikisana nokumiswa okusemthethweni kukahulumeni. ISimemezelo seshumi seSiphakamiso sisebenza njengesikhumbuzo somthetho-sisekelo sokuthi amandla angaphathiswanga i-United States agcinelwe amazwe noma abantu. I-Commercional Claus (I, i-Cate 8, Clausle 3) inikeza i-Callendrsers amandla okulawula ibhizinisi nezizwe zakwamanye amazwe, phakathi kwezifundaname, futhi nezizwe eziningi zamaMelika Ephakathi. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, lolu hlelo luye luchazwe kabanzi ukuvumela imithetho yemisebenzi eminingi yezezomnotho, ethinta ngokuqondile isimo sezwezwe noma izomnotho. Inkantolo ephakeme yeNkahlawulo lwezwe lonke. [FExptard][5]][5])

Ithonya Lezinqumo Zohulumeni Embusweni

Izinqumo zikahulumeni eziklanywe kakhulu ezihlanganisa izindawo ezibucayi njengemfundo, ezokunakekela impilo, imithetho yendawo ezungezile, kanye nezinto zokuhamba. Lemiphumela ayiqanjwa nje; inquma ukuthi amakilasi axhaswe kanjani, iziguli ezingathola iziphi izimali, izindinganiso zomoya okumelwe zihlangatshelwe, nendlela imigwaqo emikhulu eyakhiwe ngayo. Ithonya ngokuvamile lisebenza ngempoqo kahulumeni womthetho wezwe (noma ngamandla esikhwameni, ngokusebenzisa izimali nangezimali ukuze kuqondiswe ukuziphatha kwezwe.)

Imfundo

Imfundo ngokuyinhloko ingumthwalo wemfanelo wezwe nezwe, kodwa izinqubo zikahulumeni sekuyisikhathi eside zifeza indima ebalulekile. I-Fourses Foundations Act (ESA) ka-2015, eyathatha indawo ye-No Child Lend Behind Act, idinga izifunda ukuba zimise izindinganiso zemfundo eziyinselele, zinikeze izinqumo zaminyaka yonke, futhi zigcine izikole zinomthwalo wokuziphendulela ekusebenzeni kwabafundi. Izifunda zemfundo yezemfundo yase-U. Kumelwe zinikeze izinhloso zokuzikongoze zemfundo yezemfundo yomphakathi ukuze zivunyelwe. Uma uhulumeni ushintsha uhlelo lwezentengiselwano noma ukuphatha izivumelwano zesikole, ziveza izimfuneko ezikhethekile ezimele zilandelwe. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izikole zemfundo zemfundo yokukhubazeka kwezemfundo (IDA) zigunyazemfundo esemthethweni ye-ohulumeni.

Imithetho Yezokwelapha

I-Affordcable Care Act (ACA) iyisibonelo esiyinhloko sendlela kahulumeni yokunakekela impilo ehlelwe ngayo futhi ngesilinganiso sikahulumeni. I-ACA yandisa i-Medicaid imvume yokuhlanganisa abantu abadala ngeholo elifinyelela ku-88% lezinga lobumpofu obuphakathi. Nokho, i-Micad yaseNkantolo Ephakeme ka 2012 ibusa i-National Federation of Independent Business v v. Izimiso zezentengiselwano zezentengiselwano zezentengiselwano zezentengiselwano, futhi zazenza lokhu kwanweba ngokwenzuzo yezentengiselwano, futhi kwazenza ukuba kuncishiswe izikhundla zeze izimo zentengiselwano zazo. Imithetho yezentengiselwano ehlela i-Mdid, futhi inikeza iziqondiso zemininingwane yomphakathi we-Mic.[3]

Imithetho Yendawo Ezungezile

Imithetho yendawo ezungezile, eqondiswa yi-Evironmental Protection Agency (EPA), ibeka izindinganiso ezilinganiselwe okumelwe zihlangane nazo (noma zeqe. i-Ceane Air Act, ngokwesibonelo, idinga izimemezelo zokuveza iMithetho ye-State yokuhlela i-IP) ukuze kufinyelele izindinganiso ze-atmone. Uma uhulumeni uhluleka ukunikeza ipulani eyanele, i-EPA ingaphoqa icebo likahulumeni. I-EPA i-California, nge-cooral exterraption Act, enegunya lokumisa izindinganiso zemoto eziqinile, ezinye izigaba ezingase zithathe. I-Ater Act elungele ukugunya ngokufanayo izihambelo ezivumela ukuhlanganisa imithetho kahulumeni. Izimiso ze-Devition:[0] Izindawo ze-Deviko lamazwe afuna ukukhomba i-conomentine, ukuganisa izinga leze i-evision.[0]

Iminikelo Nezimali Eziwukusetshenziswa Kwamanxusa

Iminikelo ye-Federal iyithuluzi elinamandla lokuthonya uhulumeni nenkambiso yendawo. Uhulumeni kahulumeni unikeza amakhulu ezigidi zezigidi zamaRandi ngonyaka ezindaweni eziya ezindaweni ngezinhlelo ezihlukahlukene zokunikeza. Lemali iza nezimo − ngokuvamile ezibizwa ngokuthi "imicu enamathele""""" ezidinga imibuso efuna ukuba ihlelwe ngokwemithetho ethile noma inqubo yokulawula ukuze ithengise imali. Nakuba kucatshangwa ukuthi imibuso ingayenqaba imali kahulumeni, ayivamile ukwenza ngoba izisusa zemali zinkulu kakhulu.

Izinhlobo ZamaFederal Grant

  • IGrants ezithiwa i-Program: Lezi zinhlobo ezivame kakhulu, zinikeza izimali zezinjongo ezicaciswe kancane, njengokwakhiwa kwemigwaqo emikhulu, izinhlelo zesikole, noma ukuvinjelwa kobugebengu. Abazondeli kumelwe banamathele eziqondisweni eziqinile zikahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, i-FLT program ye-Aidrapy ye-Federal [ inikeza imali yezethutho kodwa imibandela evumelana nezindinganiso zikahulumeni zomklamo, ukuphepha, nokubukezwa kwendawo ezungezile.
  • Uhlelo lokuzimela amaGrant: lezi zindawo zinikeza iziphakamiso ezibanzi zokuthi zingayisebenzisa kanjani imali endaweni yenkambiso, njengokuthuthukisa umphakathi noma izinkonzo zomphakathi. Uhlelo lwe-Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) luvumela ohulumeni bendawo ukuba basekele imisebenzi eminingi kusukela ekulungiseni izindlu kuya ekuthuthukiseni kwezomnotho, ngemingcele embalwa kuneminyango enikezwayo.
  • Izincwadi ze-Grant: Ikhampani linikeza imvume kuhulumeni noma kuhulumeni bendawo, izinhlangano ezingazuzisi, noma izinhlangano zokucwaninga zemisebenzi ethile. Imisebenzi enjengeNational Institutes of Health ne-Dercement of Education inikeza umsebenzi okhuthaza ukusungulwa kodwa udinga izicelo ezinzima nokubika.

Ukuthembela ezinkondlweni zikahulumeni kungadala i-fiscal vilneribial ehlela izifundazwe. Uma izimali zikahulumeni zincishisiwe noma zishintshwa, izifunda-mazwe kumelwe zinqume izinhlelo noma ziphakamise inzuzo yazo. Phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVOVID-19, uhulumeni wanikeza izimali eziphuthumayo nge-Coronavirus Aid, Impumuzo, ne-Economic Security (CAE) Act ne-American Plated Plan Act, okwanika amazwe nezindawo ukukhululeka kwesikhashana kodwa kwafika nangemibandela nemingcele.

Izincazelo Zokwahlulela Zamandla Ombuso Ozimele

Ijaji lifeza indima ebalulekile ekuchazeni ubukhulu bamandla kahulumeni nemingcele yawo ngokuphathelene nezifundazwe. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme singandisa noma sigunyaze igunya likahulumeni, sithonye ngokuqondile umbuso kanye nokubusa kwendawo. Emakhulwini amabili eminyaka adlule, iNkantolo iye yahamba phakathi kwemithetho emibili ye-butholi.Nkantolo ibhekwa njengendawo ehlukene nehlukile nehlukile (ne-chemissionism), lapho ihlanganisa khona futhi ihlanganyela khona imithwalo yemfanelo.

Amacala Aphakeme Enkantolo

  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Lelicala lesisekelo lamisa izimiso ezimbili eziyinhloko: uhulumeni wezwe uphethe amandla ashiwoyo ngaphezu kwalawo ahlelwe ngokucacile kuMthetho-sisekelo, futhi imibuso ayinakuwakho ukukhokha intela izinhlangano zikahulumeni. Umbono kaMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall waqinisa ukuphakama kukahulumeni futhi wabeka isisekelo segunya elikhulu likahulumeni.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): INkantolo yachaza iChwethemmerce Claus ngokubanzi, iphethe ukuthi uKhongolo lungalawula noma yisiphi isici sezentengiselwano esinqamule imigqa kahulumeni. Lesisinqumo sasusa indlela yokulawula inqubo yemikhumbi, ezokuthutha, futhi kamuva, cishe wonke umsebenzi wezezomnotho.
  • I-National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202): Kulelicala lanamuhla, iNkantolo yasekela igunya lomuntu ngamunye le-ACA njengendlela esemthethweni yokusebenzisa amandla okuntela kaKhongolose kodwa yalahla ilungiselelo elaliyophoqelela amazwe ukuba andise iMedicaid ngokusongela ukususa zonke izimali ze-Medicaid. Lokhu kwaqinisekisa ukuthi uhulumeni kahulumeni awunakuphoqelela ukuba amukele izinhlelo ezintsha ngokugodla izimali zalabo abakhona.
  • South Dakota v. Dole (1987): INkantolo yasekela umthetho kahulumeni owagodlela ingxenye yemali yomgwaqo ezindaweni ezingakhuphulanga iminyaka yazo yokuphuza ifinyelele ku-21, imisa ukuthi uMkhandlu ungasebenzisa amandla awo ukuthonya isimiso sikahulumeni uma nje izimo zicacile, zihlobene nohlelo lwezwe, futhi zingabambi.

Lamacala abonisa ukuthi izincazelo zokwahlulela zingakuguqula ngokuphawulekayo ukulinganisela kwamandla. Ngokwesibonelo, ukushintshwa kwamuva kweNkantolo ekuthunjweni kukahulumeni ezindaweni ezinjengezokufuduka (umzk., ] Arizona v. United States[, 2012) ukumiswa kwemithetho kahulumeni yokufuduka kuyilapho iqinisekisa ubukhulu bezwe. Abafundi kufanele balandele indlela ukumiswa kwebhentshi esikhathini esizayo okungabuyiselwa ngayo ekubusweni kwe-paligini.

Ukuhlola Ithonya Lezehlakalo

Ukuhlola izenzakalo ezingokoqobo kunikeza ukuqonda okungokoqobo ngendlela izinqumo zikahulumeni ezithinta ngayo abantu abangokoqobo.

Isifundo Sendaba Sokuqala: Ukuxhasa Imfundo Nesihloko I

Isihloko I somthetho we-Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), eqale yamiswa ngo-1965 futhi iphinde yagunyazwa ngaphansi kwe-ESSA, inikeza izimali zikahulumeni ezifundeni ezinezilinganiso eziphansi zabafundi abahlawulwayo. Ngokulandelayo, izifunda kumelwe zisebenzise imali eyongeziwe, hhayi imali ethathelwa indawo, isifunda nemali yendawo. Lokhu kuyimfuneko kuye kwaholela ekubekeni imithetho eyinkimbinkimbi nokuhlola. Isibonelo, isifunda sesikole esisemaphandleni saseMissississippi singathola izimali eziyizigidi ezingu-R3, okumelwe zinikezelwe izilinganiso zekilasi, noma izinto ezizokufundiswa ngokukhethekile abafundi besikole, ezinciphiswe ngokwezimfuneko zemfundo. Uma iziqondiso zikahulumeni zishintsha ukungenela kobufakazi obusekelwe ekungeneleni kwazo zonke izimo zesifunda. Umnyango wezemfundo. [F.]

Ukutadisha Indaba 2: Ukwanda Kwe - Medicaid ngaphansi kwe - ACA

Lapho i-ACA iba umthetho ngo-202010, yacabanga ukuthi zonke izifundazwe zazingandisa uMdicaid ukuze zihlanganise abantu abadala abathola imali efinyelela ku-88% yezinga lobumpofu likahulumeni. Ngemva kokuba iNkantolo Ephakeme yenze ukwanda kungabi nakuzikhethela, kwavela igebe eliqinile. Ngonyaka ka-2025, izifundazwe ezingu-40 ne-Priestlty yaseColumbia ziye zandisa uMdicaid, kuyilapho izifundazwe eziyishumi zingazange zikwazi. Kulezi zindawo ezifana neTexas neFlorida, lapho abaholi bezombangazwe benqaba khona ukukhuliswa, izigidi zabantu abadala abahlala “endizeni ezibodwa”.[1] Ngokuphambene, ukulahlekelwa okukhulu kwezindleko zendawo yendalo yezezwe kodwa okuncane kakhulu ngenxa yokwandisa umshuwalenselaniso wezezentengo yeze yezentengiselwa. Lokhu kuveza umphumela owembukwayo omkhulu kakhulu kwezezombangazwe. Ngokunciphekalela kuveza umphumela owezwezwezwezwezwezwezwezwezwezwe.

Ukutadisha Icala 3: Icebo Lamandla Ahlanzekile Nokusabela KukaHulumeni

Ngo-2015, i-EPA yakhipha i-Clean Power Plan (CPP), efuna ukuba kuncishiswe igesi ye-carbon dioxide ekhishwe ezimbonini zamandla akhona ngo-32% kusukela ngo-2005 ngo-2030. Izwe lanikwa ithuba lokuzikhethela indlela yokuzivumelanisa ne-esperton (njengekususa amalahle egesi engokwemvelo), ukutshala amandla avuselelwe, noma ukumisa izinhlelo zokulungisa i-caplue-trade. Amazwe angaphezu kwamashumi amabili nambili, aholwa abameli abaphethe ama-CPPS ezifundeni ezimele ezinkantolo, aphikisa igunya le-EPA. Icebo alizange lithathe ithonya ngenxa yokuthi iNkakhulu yeNkanto ehlala ngo-2016. Kamuva, ukuphatha i-Trumpmp kuthathe indawo nge-Aff Ecrective Evective, leyo i-bine, futhi incindayo ibeke phakathi kwale isilinganiso samandla ayo. I-Emodural.

Izinselele Nokucindezeleka

Ubuhlobo bezwe nohulumeni buncintisana ngokwemvelo. Ukungavumelani ngezinga elililo lamandla kahulumeni ngokuvamile kuholela ezimpini ezingokomthetho, ezimisweni zemithetho, nasengxabanweni yokulawula. Lengxabano ibonakala kakhulu ezindaweni lapho izinto eziza kuqala kuhulumeni nakuhulumeni ziwohloka khona.

Izindawo Ezibangela Ingxabano

  • Umthetho woku-IMGUnisa: Amazwe anjengeCalifornia, iNew York, ne-Illinois amise “imithetho evimbela ukubambisana kwe-operation. Ngokuphambene, njengeTexas ne-Arizona idlulise imithetho efuna ukugcinwa komthetho wendawo ukuze usize i-ICE. Izinkantolo ze-Federal ziye zalinganiswa ngezinga lapho amazwe angalawula khona ukufuduka kwezindawo (*a amandla agcinelwe uhulumeni wesizwe. INkantolo Ephakeme ebekelwe ] Arizona v. United States] [20] yashaya izintambo eziningi ze-SB70, iqinisekisa ukuvalela kwezwe lonke i-Onke ezweni ngokomthetho mayelana nokuthunyelwa kwezokufuduka kwamanye amazwe kodwa kusuka kwezinye izinhlelo zezwe.
  • Ukulawula: ISichibiyelo Sesibini sidala ilungelo lomthetho-sisekelo lokuphatha izikhali, kodwa izimo ziyahlukahluka kakhulu endleleni ezilawula ngayo izibhamu. Umthetho weFederal umisa isisekelo esiyisisekelo. Njengezinhlolo zokudayisa ezigunyaziwe ngabathengisi abagunyaziswe imvume/kodwa izifundazwe zingabeka imingcele eyengeziwe. Ezinye izizwe, njengeCalifornia kanye ne New York, zinezinqikanqikanqi, inkathi yokulinda, nokuvinjelwa kwezikhali. Ezinye, njengoTexas noMontanal, ziye zavumela ukuba kube nemithetho engenamithetho. Imithetho evimbelayo izikhulu zikahulumeni zifuna ukuphoqelela izindinganiso zesizwe, kuyilapho izikhulu zikahulumeni zingafuni ukubambisana, ziphawula i-Cumberty.
  • Imvume yokusebenza kwe-Health Careasure Access: Imithetho ye-Federal, njengokufuna umshuwalense wezimo ezikhona ngaphambili noma ukuvumela ukugcinwa kwemali yempilo, ukuphikisana nezinye izifundazwe eziza kuqala. Ngo-2018, i-U.Umfela-nye wemibuso owenzelwe ukuqeda yonke i-ACA, uphikisa ukuthi i-athonsituni ngayinye ayizange iphumelele. Nakuba ekugcineni ukumangalelwa kwecala kwahluleka, kwabonisa ukuncintisana okuqhubekayo kwezombangazwe nengokomthetho wezempilo kahulumeni. Izwe liye lamelana nemithetho kahulumeni yemithetho yokukhanya yeze izibhedlela nemithetho yezidakamizwa.
  • Ukubekwa ngokomthetho kwe-Marijuana: Nakuba insangu isalokhu ingekho emthethweni ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni olawulwa yizinto, ngaphezu kwengxenye yezwe iye yayigunyaza ukuba isetshenziswe kwezokwelapha noma ngokwezinjabulo. Lokhu kwakha indawo empunga engokomthetho yamabhizinisi, amabhange, nabasebenzisi. Uhulumeni wezwe ubekeze kakhulu ezindaweni nge-Cole Metrirandum (kamuva i-Refecta) kanye nabagibeli bezikhathi ezithile abavimbele uDepartment of Justicess emkhanseni wenkal. Nokho, izingxabano ezikhona ziyahlala zingapheliswa, futhi amabhizinisi kahulumeni ahlala engekho izinkonzo zokubhakela ngenxa yomthetho wombuso.

Ikusasa LobuFande

Ukuthambekela kokuhlanganisa izingxabano kanye nezindawo zokubambisana kudinga ukuzwana kwamandla phakathi kohulumeni bezwe nohulumeni njengoba belungiselela ukuhileleka ekuphileni komphakathi.

Ukuthambekela Okuvundlile

  • Izwe eligcwele i-Autonomy: Amazwe aqinisa igunya lawo, ngokuvamile eholwa ababusi nezishaya-mthetho zikahulumeni, ezindabeni ezinjengokushintsha kwesimo sezulu, iholo elilinganiselwe, nokufuduka. Ngokwesibonelo, izifunda eziningana ziye zabeka izisulu zazo zokunciphiswa kwegesi eshisayo, zijoyina imifelandawo efana ne-U.S. Climate Alliance. Lokhu kukhuthaza u- - E - E - mail.
  • I-Coltudiation on Key Issues: Naphezu kokungezwani, ohulumeni bombuso nohulumeni ngokuvamile bayabambisana, ikakhulukazi ezimweni eziphuthumayo. Umqedazwe we-COVID wabona ukubambisana okungakaze kube khona kwemithetho kahulumeni esabelweni somjovo, ukuhlolwa, nesiqondiso sempilo yomphakathi. Ngokufanayo, uhulumeni usebenza ngezindawo ezisabela ngenhlekelele nge-FEMA, ngokuxhasa izimoto ngenkampane yoMnyango we-FOTTP, nangezokucwaninga ngezinhlangano ezinjenge-NSF ne-NIH.
  • Izinselele ze-partisan : Ukuthambekela kokumangalela uhulumeni kahulumeni ngenxa yokungavumelani kwezimiso kuye kwakhula. Izifundazwe zaseRepublic-ziqinisi zibekela i-Obama-era ziqondiso; izifunda-edemocratic-era inselele izimiso ze-Trump-era. Lokhu kubekwa phambili kudala ukungaqiniseki nokusetshenziswa kwe-test. Izinqulu zeNkantolo ePhakathi ziveza izinqumo ezinjengokukhishwa kwesisu, amalungelo okuvota, nemithetho yendawo ezungezile iyaqhubeka idonsa imigqa ye-Trump-era.
  • IFiscal Federalism ne Generational Krelette: Isikweleti esikhulayo sikahulumeni singaholela ekunciphiseni imali enikezwayo noma izimo ezandisiweyo kumadollar. I-United States ingabhekana nokucindezela kokunyusa izintela noma ukunciphisa izinkonzo uma ukuthunyelwa kukahulumeni kuncipha. Ngokuphikisana, izikhulu zemali zingaletha inkululeko eyengeziwe ekulawuleni kwemithetho.

Ukuhlola imibuso kahulumeni kanye nethonya layo emazingeni ezwe nasezindaweni ezithile kwembula ukuthi akuyona i-prince ewubufundisi kodwa ubuhlobo obuyinkimbinkimbi, obuxoxwa. Izinqumo zesizwe zihlela uhlelo, kodwa izifundazwe nezindawo zihlala zinolwazi oluphawulekayo, futhi ziyakwazi ukumelana. Njengoba isizwe sibhekana nezinselele kusukela ekushintsheni kwesimo sezulu kuya ekuphazamisekeni kwezobuchwepheshe, ukuhlanganiswa phakathi kukahulumeni, umbuso, nohulumeni bendawo kuzakuhlala kuyisici esivelele sokubusa kwaseMelika. Ngokuhlola lamandla, abafundi bazuza ukwazisa okujulileyo ngezimiso ze-governotion kanye nokusebenza kwentando yeningi eUnited States.