Ubuhlobo phakathi kwemithetho yendawo, uhulumeni, nohulumeni budala isimo esiyinkimbinkimbi esilawula i-United States. Ukuqonda lesi senzakalo kubalulekile kubafundisi nakubafundi ngokufanayo, njengoba sithonya izici ezihlukahlukene zomphakathi, kuhlanganise nemfundo, ukulondeka komphakathi, namalungelo omphakathi. Lesi sihloko sihlola izindima ezihlukene zesilinganiso ngasinye semithetho, indlela abasebenzelana ngayo, kanye nezici eziwusizo zemibuso yabo ehlukene.

Ukuqonda Izinga Lokubekwa Kwemithetho

Umthetho e-United States usebenza emazingeni amathathu ayinhloko: indawo, umbuso, nombuso. Isigaba ngasinye sinesimiso saso sombuso, imithwalo yemfanelo, nokulinganiselwa, ngezinye izikhathi okungaholela ezingxabanweni noma ekubambisana. U.S. uMthetho-sisekelo[ umisa isimiso sombuso lapho amandla esasazwa khona phakathi kukahulumeni wesizwe nemibuso, lapho ohulumeni bendawo bethatha igunya labo ngemithetho-mthetho-mthetho nezimiso.

Imithetho Yasendaweni

Umthetho wendawo umiswa ohulumeni bedolobha noma besifunda, njengemikhandlu yamadolobha, amakhomishane esifundazwe, namabhodi esikole. Lemithetho ikhuluma ngezindaba zomphakathi eziqondene nezindawo futhi ngokuvamile ibonisa izindinganiso nezidingo zomphakathi wendawo. Imithetho yendawo ihlanganisa izindaba ezinjengokuhlanganisa indawo, ukusetshenziswa kwendawo, ukulawulwa komsindo, ukuphepha komphakathi, nokugcinwa kwezebhizinisi lendawo.

  • Izibonelo zihlanganisa imithetho elawula izinhlobo zezakhiwo ezingakhiwa ezindaweni ezithile, imithetho yendawo eqashwe ngesikhashana njenge - Airbnb, nemithetho kamasipala emibuthanweni yomphakathi.
  • Ohulumeni bendawo banegunya lokudala imithetho elawula ukuphila kwansuku zonke, njengemithetho yomsindo, ukulawula izilwane nokunakekela umgwaqo.
  • Amabhodi ezikole akha izimiso eziphathelene nezifundo, ukuphepha kwesikole, nokusetshenziswa kwemali, ngokuvamile esebenza phakathi kweziqondiso zikahulumeni nohulumeni.

Nakuba imithetho yendawo iyiyo efanelana kakhulu nezakhamuzi, zingaphansi kokubekwa isigwebo. Izwe lingalinganisela noma lithathe imithetho yendawo uma ingqubuzana nomthetho kahulumeni noma izinhloso zezimiso. Ngokwesibonelo, imibuso eminingana iye yamisa imithetho evimbela amadolobha ekubekeni iholo eliphansi kakhulu noma izinyathelo zokulawula.

Ukubekwa Kwemithetho Kahulumeni

Umthetho kahulumeni umiswa ohulumeni bezwe ngemikhandlu yabo yemithetho (umz., imihlangano emikhulu ne-senate) nababusi. Imithetho yoMbuso ihlanganisa izimpikiswano eziningi kunemithetho yendawo futhi ingahluka kakhulu kusuka kwesinye isifundazwe kuya kwesinye. Izwe lingasebenzisa amandla amaphoyisa [ ukuvikela impilo, ukuphepha, nenhlalakahle yezakhamuzi zalo.

  • Izibonelo zihlanganisa izimiso zemfundo (izindinganiso zemfundo, izitifiketi zothisha), imithetho yobugebengu (ukuthola iziqondiso zobugebengu, ukugweba iziqondiso), nezimiso zezempilo (izimfuneko zokugoma, ukuphatha iMedicaid).
  • Amazwe anamandla okumisa imithetho engadingida izindaba ezicatshangelwa umthetho kahulumeni, njengezentengiselwano zezwe, umthetho womkhaya (umshado, isehlukaniso, ukuwinwa kwabantwana), nomthetho wempahla.
  • Izishaya - mthetho zikahulumeni zilawula nesakhiwo sohulumeni bendawo, zinqume imibuso nemithwalo yazo yemfanelo.

Imithetho yoMbuso iwumthombo oyinhloko wegunya elingokomthetho ezindabeni eziningi zansuku zonke. Nokho, kumelwe zivumelane noMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. nemithetho esemthethweni ngaphansi kweSipremacy Claus. Lapho imithetho kahulumeni ne-hulumeni ingqubuzana, umthetho kahulumeni ngokuvamile uyanqoba, kodwa imibuso inganikeza isivikelo esikhulu kunesilinganiso esingaphansi sikahulumeni ezindaweni eziningi njengezindinganiso zendawo ezungezile noma amalungelo omphakathi.

Imithetho Yesifunda

Umthetho kahulumeni usungulwa yiSishaya-mthetho sase-U.S. (Indlu yabameleli neSigele) futhi sasayinwa umthetho nguMongameli. Imithetho ye-Federal isebenza kuzo zonke izifundazwe namasimu, isingatha izindaba ezibaluleke kakhulu zesizwe. Imibuso kahulumeni kahulumeni ibalalwe eMthethweni, ikakhulukazi eSiphakami, i-ICentu 8, ehlanganisa amandla okulawula ezohwebo zezwe, imali yemali, ukumemezela impi, nokumisa amahhovisi eposi.

  • Izibonelo zihlanganisa imithetho yomphakathi (I - Civil Rights Act ka - 1964, i - Voting Rights Act), imithetho yokufuduka, imithetho yendawo ezungezile (I - Dic Air Act, Clean Water Act), nemithetho yomthetho kahulumeni (ukushushumbisa izidakamizwa, ukuphanga emabhange).
  • Imithetho kahulumeni ngokuvamile ibeka izindinganiso ezilinganiselwe imibuso okumelwe izilandele, kodwa imibuso ingasebenzisa imithetho eqinile ezindaweni lapho umthetho kahulumeni uyivumela khona ngokuqondile.
  • Umthetho kahulumeni uyindlela eyinhloko yokunikeza izifundazwe imali ngezimali ezinemibandela (isib., izimali zomgwaqo omkhulu kahulumeni ezihlangene nokuvumelana nezimiso ezithile).

Umthetho-mthetho ka-Claus we-U.S. umisa ukuthi umthetho kahulumeni ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe, okusho ukuthi uqinisa imithetho ephikisanayo kahulumeni. Nokho, iNkantolo Ephakeme iye yachaza lemfundiso ngokulinganiselwe kwezinye izimo, ilondoloza igunya likahulumeni ezindaweni ezingokwesiko njengomthetho wekhaya nobulungisa bobugebengu ngaphandle kokuba umthetho kahulumeni uhlose ukuyilahla.

Ukuhlangana Phakathi Kwezinga

Ukusebenzelana phakathi kwemithetho yendawo, uhulumeni, nohulumeni kungaholela kukho kokubili ukubambisana nezingxabano. Ukuqonda lezi zinto ezinamandla kubalulekile ekuqondiseni indlela engokomthetho futhi siqaphele indlela esetshenziswa ngayo.

Ukubambisana Phakathi Kwamaqembu

Ezimweni eziningi, ohulumeni bendawo, uhulumeni, nohulumeni babambisana ekuxazululeni izindaba ezifanayo. Lokhu kubambisana kungathuthukisa ukuphumelela komthetho futhi kuqinisekise ukuthi imithombo ihlanganiswa ukuze kube nethonya elikhulu.

  • Izindlela zokuthatha isinyathelo empilweni yomphakathi : Phakathi nobhadane lwe-COVID-19, izinhlangano zikahulumeni njenge CDC zinikeza isiqondiso nezimali, kuyilapho iminyango yezempilo yombuso neyomphakathi yasungula ukuhlola, ukugoma, nezinhlelo zokuxhumana. i-Federal inikeza imizamo esekelayo kahulumeni yokwandisa izakhiwo zezempilo.
  • Imizamo ebanzi yokusabela enhlekeleleni nasekululameni : Lapho kugadla izinhlekelele ezingokwemvelo (umzk., iziphepho, imililo yequbula), i-Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) ihlangene namanxusa abaphathi besimo esiphuthumayo kanye nabaphendula kuqala bendawo. Izimali ze-Federal zincishiswa ezindaweni nasezindaweni zokwakha futhi zilungiselwe.
  • izibopho zikahulumeni zokuhamba : Izimali zikahulumeni zikahulumeni ezisemgwaqweni wemigwaqo yasesifundazwe nemisebenzi yokuthutha, kuyilapho iminyango kahulumeni yezinhlelo zokuthutha nokulungisa imigwaqo, futhi ohulumeni bendawo baphatha imigwaqo yesibini nezimiso zokuthutha zomphakathi. Lo mbambiswano wemishini ebanzi uqinisekisa inxanxanxathela yezokuhamba.
  • Amabutho asebenza ngokuqapha amaphoyisa [[FLT: 1]]: Amanxusa e-FBI ne-DEA avame ukusebenza nombuso ne-DEA emaphoyiseni asebenza ndawonye ahlasela ukushushumbisa izidakamizwa, ubugebengu be-inthaneti, nobuphekula. Ulwazi nemithombo yezobuchwepheshe kuhlanganyelwa emazingeni onke ukuze kuthuthukise ukuphepha komphakathi.

Izingxabano Phakathi Kwezinga

Lezi zingxabano ngokuvamile ziholela ezinkingeni ezingokomthetho futhi zidinga ukungenela kokwahlulela, ikakhulukazi eNkantolo Ephakeme yaseU.S., ukuze kutholakale ukulinganisela okufanelekile kwamandla.

  • Ukugunyazwa ngokomthetho kwesifundazwe naphezu kokuvinjelwa kukahulumeni : Kusukela ngo-2025, izifundazwe eziningi ziye zagunyaza insangu ukuze isetshenziswe kwezokwelapha noma ekuzijabuliseni, kodwa ihlala iyisimiso sokulawula ngaphansi komthetho kahulumeni. Lokhu kudala ukungezwani phakathi kombuso nezindawo eziphambili zomthetho. Uhulumeni wezwe uye wathatha kakhulu inkambiso yokungavumelani ngaphansi kwesiqondiso seCole Memperandum, kodwa i-partum esemthethweni iyaphikelela.
  • Izimiso zedolobha eziphikisana nomthetho wokuthutha wamazwe kahulumeni : Abanye ohulumeni bendawo baye bathatha izimiso ezinqabela ukubambisana neziphathimandla zokufuduka zikahulumeni, njengokungaphazamisi abantu ngokusekelwe kuphela esimweni sokufuduka. Uhulumeni wezwe ukhiphe izikhundla eziningana, uphikisa ukuthi izinhlelo ezinjalo ziphula umthetho we-U.S.C. 763 (umthetho kazwelonke onqabela ukuvinjelwa kokwaziswa ngokuhlanganyela isikhundla sokufuduka). Izinkantolo ziye zakhipha izinqumo ezihlukene, futhi lomagazini uyaqhubeka umangalelwa ngokwezombangazwe.
  • Izimiso ezingokomsuka[: Uma umbuso umisa izindinganiso zendawo ezungezile eziqinile kunomthetho kahulumeni (umzk., i-Evenvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) ingabekela inselele noma inikeze abaphangi. I-Ceailone Air Act ivumela iCalifornia ukuba ifune isiphakamiso sezindinganiso eziqinile, futhi ezinye izifundazwe zingamukela imithetho yeCalifornia. Lokhu kubambisana-via-waiveiser kuveza i-drama.
  • [[FLT: 0] Imfundo ifuna ukulandisa : I-guenean Avery Students Reduevered Act (ESA) idinga izimo zokumisa izindinganiso zemfundo nokuvivinya abafundi, kodwa izifunda zikanokuvumelana ekuklameni izimiso zabo zokuziphendulela. Izingxabano zingavela lapho iziqondiso zikahulumeni zithathwa njengezithatha kakhulu phambili noma lapho izigaba zifuna izisulu ezikwezimfuneko ezithile.

Ukuhlola Indaba Yokungenelana Kwemithetho

Ukuhlola amacala akhethekile kunikeza ukuqonda ngendlela imithetho yendawo, isifunda nohulumeni esebenza ngayo. Izibonelo ezilandelayo ziqokomisa incazelo ecacile yalesimiso sokubusa esinezinga eliphezulu.

Ukutadisha Indaba 1: Umthetho Wemfundo

Isimiso semfundo eUnited States sibonisa ukufakwa kwemithetho kuwo wonke amazinga. Nakuba imithetho kahulumeni enjenge Wonke umfundi uphumelele [ESSA] wamisa imigaqo ebanzi futhi wanikeza izimali, amazwe nezifunda zendawo zilungisa izimiso zawo zemfundo ukuze kuhlangatsheliswe izidingo ezithile.

  • Amabhodi ezikole asendaweni ezungezile akha izinqubo eziphathelene nezifundo, ukuphepha kwesikole, nokuhlelwa kwemali. Futhi zengamela ukwakhiwa kwesikole, ukuqashwa, nemisebenzi yansuku zonke. Ukulawula indawo kubaluleke kakhulu emfundweni yaseMelika.
  • Iminyango yemfundo yesifunda [ imisa izindinganiso (isib., iCorvene Core noma i-mode) kahulumeni, ithuthukise izinqumo, futhi inike izifundazwe imali yokuxhasa izifunda. Amazwe amisa nezimfuneko zothisha kanye nezimfuneko zokuthweswa iziqu.
  • Ukuhileleka kwangaphakathi [ kuhlanganisa nokuxhasa ngemali izikole ezithola imali ephansi (isiHloko I), imfundo ekhethekile (IDEA), nokugcinwa kwamalungelo omphakathi (Isihloko se-IX). Imithetho ye-Federal igunyaza ukuba amazwe nezifunda zinikeze amathuba alinganayo emfundo futhi zivikele abafundi ekucwaseni.

Imidlalo iyabonakala ezimpikiswaneni zokuhlola okuvamile. Umthetho kaFederal udinga ukuhlolwa kwaminyaka yonke ekufundeni nasebaleni, kodwa izifunda zivumelana nokukhetha ukuhlaziya. Ezinye izifundazwe ziye zahlehlela emuva ekuhlolweni ngokweqile, okuholela ekushintsheni kwezimo ezisesilinganisweni sikahulumeni okunciphisa izimfuneko zokuhlola kuyilapho kuhambisana nomthetho kahulumeni. Lokhu kubangela ukuxoxisana okuqhubekayo phakathi kwamazinga.

Ukuhlola Indaba 2: Imithetho Yendawo Ezungezile

Umthetho wendawo unikeza esinye isibonelo esicacile sokushaya umthetho. Izimiso ze-Federal zimisa izivikelo zendawo ezungezile eziqinile, kuyilapho imibuso ingamisa izinyathelo eziqinile. Ngezinye izikhathi ohulumeni bendawo baye badlulela ngisho nangaphezulu, ikakhulukazi ezindabeni ezinjengokuphatha udoti nokusebenzisa indawo.

  • Izindinganiso zemoto eziqinile ezikhipha intuthu uma ziqhathaniswa nezimfuneko zikahulumeni zibonisa ukuhola kukahulumeni. Ngaphansi komthetho we-Ceal Air Act, California kungafuna umphakamisi osuka e-EPA ukuze asebenzise izindinganiso eziqinile, futhi amanye amazwe angathatha imithetho yaseCalifornia. Lokhu kuye kwaqhubela imboni yezimoto ukuba ikhiqize izimoto ezihlanzekile ezweni lonke.
  • Izinyathelo zendawo ezithatha indawo ekunqandeni amapulasitiki asetshenziswayo awedlula iziqondiso zikahulumeni. Amadolobha amaningi nezibalo ziye zavala izikhwama zepulasitiki, izitsha, utshani, kanye namabhokisi amagwebu, ngisho noma umthetho kahulumeni ungawanqabeli. Nokho, ezinye izifundakazi ziye zakhipha imithetho yokuvimbela ukuvinjelwa kwepulasitiki yendawo, zidala ukuxabana phakathi kwezenzo zendawo ezungezile nezindaba zikahulumeni.
  • Ukubambisana kwe-Federal-tem-pal e-Celean Water Act: I-EPA imisa izinga lamanzi, kodwa isebenzisa i-National Pollitant Direfiction Inquisition System (NPDES) evumela uhlelo. I-United States ingathola futhi isilinganiso esingaphezulu sokuvikela amanzi. Ukudamba kuvela lapho amazwe ephikisa imithetho yamanzi ahlanzekile kahulumeni noma lapho ohulumeni bendawo bebekela imvume kahulumeni.

Ukuhlolwa Kwezimo 3: Impilo Yomphakathi Namandla Aphuthumayo

Isifo se-COVOID-19 saqokomisa ukuhlangana okuyinkimbinkimbi phakathi kwamazinga kahulumeni ezimo eziphuthumayo zempilo yomphakathi. Amanxusa esizwe anikeza izimali, isiqondiso, nokuthuthukisa umjovo, kuyilapho amazwe akhipha iziyalezo zokuhlala ekhaya, iziphakamiso, nemithetho yezebhizinisi. Iminyango yezempilo yendawo yayivame ukusebenzisa futhi isebenzise lezimiso.

  • Indima ye-FLT ye-FOVERAL [: Iziqondiso ezikhiqizwayo, imijovo ye-FDA egunyaziwe nokwelashwa, ne-Congress yadlulisa amaphakethe osizo njenge-CARESS Act enikeza usizo ezifundazweni nasezindaweni.
  • Indima yesifundazwe[: Ohulumeni basebenzisa amandla aphuthumayo ukugunyaza ukuvala nokuvula futhi. Ezinye izifundazwe zasula imiyalo yendawo eqinile kuneyombuso, kuyilapho ezinye zivumela ohulumeni bendawo ukuba bamise imingcele eqinile.
  • Indima yendawo: Abaphathi nabaqondisi besifunda bamisa izikhathi zokwehla, imibuthano elinganiselwe, nezimfuneko zokufihla imbobo eziphoqelelwe. Iminyango yezempilo yendawo yaqhuba imikhankaso yokuxhumana nokugoma.

Kwaqubuka izingxabano lapho amanye amadolobha noma izikhawu eziphikiswayo zikahulumeni zithola iziyalezo eziphinde zavulwa, noma lapho ohulumeni bombuso bemangalela izindawo ngenxa yokudlula igunya labo. iMithetho yabekela futhi inselele izinga lamandla okubusa phakathi kwezimo eziphuthumayo. Lo mqedazwe wagcizelela ukubaluleka kwezinqubo ezicacile ezingokomthetho zokubambisana kohulumeni kanye nesinqumo sempi.

Izinselele Ekuzilungiseni Okusemthethweni

Ukuyinkimbinkimbi kwemithetho kubekela abamisi - mthetho, othisha nezakhamuzi izinselele eziningi.

Izingxabano Ezingokomthetho Nezici Eziyinhlekelele

Izingxabano ezingokomthetho zivame ukuvela ezimpini ezihlukahlukene ezihlukene zemithetho, ezingaholela ekuxazululeni okuqhubekayo nasekungaqinisekini ngamabhizinisi, abantu ngabanye nezikhungo zomphakathi.

  • Amacala aseNkantolo ePhakathi acacisa ukulinganisela kwamandla, njenge National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (20]) (20:2) eMthethweni we-Medford Carect,'s media's media's , noma Murphy v. NACA[FLT][2018] owahlasela umthetho kahulumeni owenqabela ukugunyaza ukubhalisa imidlalo.
  • Imithetho yesizwe iphenjelelwa ezinkantolo zikahulumeni ngenxa yokuvumelana nemithetho kahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, imibuso eminingana iye yakhipha imithetho elawula ukukhishwa kwesisu eye yabekelwa inselele njengokuphula iRoe v. Wade nemithetho elandelayo. Izinkantolo kumelwe zinqume ukuthi imithetho kahulumeni incishiswa yisivikelo somthetho-mthetho-sisekelo kahulumeni.
  • Izimpikiswano zokukhulula [: Amazwe avame ukusula imithetho yendawo ukuze adale izimiso ezifanayo zikahulumeni, kodwa ohulumeni bendawo baphikisa ngokuthi lokhu kululaza idemokrasi yendawo. Ngokwesibonelo, amazwe amaningi aye achitha ukwanda kweholo elilinganiselwe lendawo, ukukhokhela ikhefu lokugula, nokuvinjelwa kwesikhwama sepulasitiki.

Ukuqaphela Umphakathi Nokuhlanganyela

Ukuqonda ukuthi umthetho wendawo, uhulumeni nohulumeni uyinkimbinkimbi kangakanani kudinga ukuqashelwa nomphakathi.

  • [ imfundo yomphakathi ezikoleni ukuthuthukisa izakhamuzi ezinolwazi. Ukufundisa abafundi ngemithetho yombuso, inqubo yomthetho, nendlela yokuhlanganyela empendulweni yomphakathi noma ekuthintaneni nezikhulu ezikhethiwe ibalulekile embusweni wentando yeningi onempilo. Izinhlangano ezinjenge [[FLT:]'Acts zinikeza abafundisi imithombo yemali.
  • Ukunikeza umphakathi i-ums ukuxoxa ngezindaba zomthetho zendawo. Amahholo edolobha, imihlangano yomkhandlu wedolobha, kanye nezikhulu zesikole kunikeza izakhamuzi iphimbo eliqondile ngenqubo yendawo. Nokho, ukucwebezela okuphansi nokungaqapheli kuvame ukulinganisela ukungenela komphakathi.
  • I-mediaslim futhi ibalulekile, njengoba imibiko yezindaba ngezinye izikhathi ihlanganisa noma ifaka ngokweqile izindima zamazinga ahlukene kahulumeni. Ukuqonda okuqondile kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba zibambe izinga elifanele lokulandisa kukahulumeni.

Imithwalo Enzima Neyabaqondisi

Ukushaya izimfuneko zomthetho ezihlalwayo kungadala imithwalo emikhulu yokuqondisa neyomnotho kohulumeni nezinhlangano ezizimele.

  • Izimfuneko ezivumelekile: Imali enikezwayo ivela kaningi nezibopho zokufaka umbiko nokulalela ezicindezelwe uhulumeni nemithombo yendawo. Ngokwesibonelo, i-Awestures ene-Druse Digitation Act (IDEA) idinga ukunikeza izimo zokunikeza abafundi "imfundo yomphakathi ekhululekile" ekhululekile" kodwa izimali zikahulumeni zihlanganisa ingxenye encane yezindleko zangempela.
  • [ Ukuvumelana nomthetho : Amabhizinisi angadinga ukuvumelana nemvume kahulumeni, kahulumeni, neyasendaweni ezungezile, imithetho yezisebenzi, nezimiso zokuphepha. Lokhu kungavimbela ukuhweba futhi kubangele izinselele zokulalela, ikakhulukazi kumabhizinisi amancane.
  • Ukuhlelwa kwezinkinga [: Phakathi namamo aphuthumayo, isidingo sokuxhumanisa amazinga ngokushesha singathiywa yimingcele engokomthetho noma ukungaxhumani. Ukusabela kweSiphepho uKatrina esibonisa ukuhluleka kwezimiso zombuso, okuholela ezingeni elingcono ekulawuleni inhlekelele.

Isiphetho

Umthetho ophakathi kwezindawo, umbuso, nohulumeni uyisici esibalulekile sokubusa e-United States. Ngokuqonda lendawo eyinkimbinkimbi, othisha nabafundi bangasebenzisa kangcono izinselele namathuba abawanikezayo. UFederali akusona isimiso esikhona kodwa isimiso esinamandla esivela ngomthetho, ukuchaza ukwahlulela, nokusebenza kwezombangazwe. Njengoba izindaba ezifana nokushintsha kwesimo sezulu, impilo yomphakathi, kanye nobuchwepheshe ziqhubeka zinqamule imingcele ephakeme, ikhono lokusebenza ngapha nangapha kwezinga likahulumeni lizoba elibucayi ngisho nakakhulu.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, hlola incazelo .gov yemikhankaso yamagatsha kahulumeni, i-[FLT] Conreg.gov i-project metamrment [, kanye nemithombo ye-National Conference of State Legislatures kuhulumeni nasekuhlanganeni kombuso. Izakhamuzi ezinolwazi, ziyitshebe le-projectism yempumelelo ye-athonsism, iqinisekisa ukuthi wonke amazinga kahulumeni asebenza ndawonye ukuze ahlangabezane nezidingo zabantu.