Isingeniso: INkantolo Ephakeme Njengomgadi Wamalungelo Omthetho - sisekelo

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States isebenza njengommisi wokugcina woMthetho-sisekelo, ilungisa isimo somthetho esichaza inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye namandla kahulumeni. Ngezinqumo zengqopha - mlando, iNkantolo iye yachaza izimiso zesisekelo ezithi zifanele, isivikelo esilinganayo, nenkululeko yokukhuluma (ezinkulu) izindlela eziye zanwetshwa ngokuphawulekayo noma, ngezinye izikhathi, zicindezelwe inkululeko yomphakathi. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuhlola okujulile kwezindaba eziyinhloko eziyishumi zeziNkanto eziyinhloko eziye zaguqula amalungelo omthetho kanye nenkululeko yomphakathi, zinikeza ukuma komlando, ukucabanga okungokomthetho, kanye nemiphumela ehlala njalo.

Marbury v. Madison (103): Ibhedrock of Judicial Review

Lelicala lavela esiyaluyalwini sezombangazwe sokhetho lwango-1800, lapho uMongameli okhululekile uJohn Adams emisa amajaji amaningana "aphakathi kobusuku." Lapho ukuphatha okusha ngaphansi kukaThomas Jefferson kwenqaba ukuletha izimemezelo, uWilliam Marbury waququda ukumiswa kwakhe. UMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Marshall, ebhalela iNkantolo, ebhekene nesimo esibucayi sezombangazwe: ukuthunyelwa komthetho kwakungase kunganakwa, kuyilapho ukwenqaba kungenza buthaka igunya lokwahlulela.

Umbono kaMarshall wamisa isimiso sokubukeza . `Amandla enkantolo kahulumeni okumemezela izenzo zomthetho nezokuphatha ngokungakhethi. Wacabanga ukuthi "kuyi-profecta nesibopho somnyango wokwahlulela ukusho ukuthi umthetho uyini]." Lendaba yamisa isisekelo sejaji lejaji ukuba lisebenze njengegatsha likahulumeni elilinganayo, lichaze umthetho nomthetho nomthetho owenziwe ngokulinganiselayo. Ngaphandle kweMarbury, iNkantolo yayizontula igunya lokuhlola iSishaya iSishaya - mthetho noMongameli, yenza amalungelo omphakathi aphumelele ngokulandelayo angakwazi.

Ukuze ubheke ngokujule kakhulu umsuka wokuhlola kokwahlulela, bheka [[FLT: 0]] isifushaniso seMarbury v. Madison.

2. Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Ukuqeda uHlahlu lwezimo zezwe oluHlakulelwe

Brown v. Board of Education yahlanganisa amacala amahlanu ahlukene abekela inselele umthetho-mfantu wobandlululo lwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi. I-Placttiff, emelelwa nguThur Good Marshall neNaACP Legal Defense Fund, yaphikisa ngokuthi "ukuhlukanisa kodwa ulingana" izakhiwo zazingalingani ngokwemvelo. Esinqumweni esihlangene, iPust Earl Warren Warren wabhala ukuthi i-Contranssion "ivel i-asemeo ... engathinta izinhliziyo nezingqondo zabo ngendlela engenakulungiseka.

Inkantolo yayigumbuqela ngokuqondile Pressesy v. Ferguson (1996), eyayivumele ukuhlukaniswa ngokohlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso yokwahlukana kodwa elinganayo. Brown[ yamemezela ukuthi imithetho enqumayo ehlukanisa izikole zomphakathi kubafundi abamnyama nabamhlophe yaphula iSiphendulo sobuhlanga se-145. Isinqumo asizange sisuse ngokushesha izikole zezehlulele futhi sathatha ezinye izinqumo njengomthetho womthetho womthetho futhi saqhubeka nokubekwa kwemithetho enjenge [[FLT:]. (195]).[58] Inikeza isisekelo esingokomthetho se-Octivement for geoctal Convementmentation. Indaba futhi yasungula indlela yokuchaza isayensi yezenhlalo.

Ukuze uqonde indima yeNAACP kulokhu kubekwa kwecala, vakashela iNaACP Legal Defense Fund ekhasini Brown[[FLT: 1].

UGqr.G.

Roe Vade wavela kumthetho waseTexas owathi ukukhipha isisu kwaphambaniswa nobugebengu ngaphandle kokulondoloza ukuphila kukamama. I-lifesttiff, "Jane Roe" (Norma McCorvey), edluliselwe kubo bonke abesifazane abafuna ukukhishwa kwezisu. INkantolo, esinqumweni esingu-7-2, yaqaphela ukuthi umthetho welungelo lokukhipha isisu ngaphandle kokuvikela ukuphila kukamama ("Gust Processom Claus] weNguquko ye-1459"e"e-enamex' (inqunyu yakhipha isinqumo sowesifazane sokuqeda ukukhulelwa kwakhe. Umcaperry Blackun wamisa isakhiwo esimcaza ngokucutha: phakathi nesinqumo sokuqala, izimemezelo ezingenqanyuliwe ukukhishwa kwesibili, babengavimbela ukukhishwa kwesisuba; phakathi nesesithathu bangalawula ukuvikela impilo; futhi phakathi nesempilweni yokukhishwa kwezisu.

Lelicala laba isisekelo samalungelo okuzala, ukubhebhethekisa amashumi eminyaka ezimpi zezombangazwe nezezomthetho. Isinqumo saqinisekisa ukuthi abesifazane banenkululeko phezu kwemizimba yabo phakathi kwemingcele ethile, kodwa futhi lavuselela izinhlangano ezilwa nokukhishwa kwemizwa. Ngo-2022, iNkantolo yalawula [] i-Roe[ [[FLT]] ku-Dobbs v. Jackson’s Health Organization, ibuyisela imithetho yokukhipha isisu ezingenisweni. Ngisho nangemva [[FLT:] [FLT:], ukucabanga okungokomthetho [FLT:] [FLT] [FLT] [FLT] [F]] [FLT] [F:6]] [FLT]] [F:7] ikhombate informationssionation ecustommentssiontion.

Funda umbono ogcwele [ku-[QL:0] Cornell Legional Information's jaji le jaji .

Miranda n.Arizona (1966): Ukuvikela Amalungelo Omangalelwe

UMenda v. Arizona, iNkantolo yacabangela amacala amane aqiniswayo lapho abamangalelwa babeye basho khona izinkulumo zokumangalela ngaphandle kokutshelwa ngamalungelo abo. Impikiswano yayiwukuthi iSichibiyelo Sesihlanu sasidinga yini isivikelo sokuzivikela kumaphoyisa ukuba axwayise abasolwa ngaphambi kokuphenywa kwemvume. UMahluleli omkhulu uWarren, ebhalela abantu abangu-5-4, wayekholelwa ukuthi abashushicileli babengenakusebenzisa izinkulumo ezivela ekubuzeni imvume ngaphandle kokuba umsoli uxwayiso wokuqala uxwayisiwe ngelungelo lokuthula, ilungelo lokuhlala egcotshwe ummeli, neqiniso lokuthi noma yini okuthiwe kungasetshenziswa enkantolo.

Isinqumo samanje sakha "Amalungelo e-Muranda" ama-drama amaMelika ezwa cishe kuyo yonke idrama yobugebengu. Yaba nethonya elikhulu emikhubeni yokugcinwa komthetho: iminyango yamaphoyisa yabukeza imithetho yayo yokuphenya, futhi abaningi abasolayo baqala ukuveza ilungelo labo lokweluleka. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi [[FLT:] Manda] [[FLT]] [[FLT]]] [1] ivimbela ukuphumelela kwamaphoyisa, kodwa ikubona njengesivikelo esibalulekile ekuvumeleni izono nasezinkolelo ezingamangalelayo. [[[FLT:]] [FLT]] [FLT] [FLT]] [3] [ist:] isixwayiso esiphakathi senqubo yobugebengu, ngokumelene nokuphepha komphakathi (njenge-"ukuphepha okungahlukene] ku-Foctalmarty"]] [2]] [2]]

ULove v. Virginia (1967): Ukuqinisekisa Ilungelo Lokushada Ngalé Kwemidanti Yohlanga

ok. Virginia waphula umthetho waseVirginia owawunqabela ukushada kwabantu bezinhlanga. URichard Loving, indoda emhlophe, noMildred Jeter, owesifazane omnyama, bashada eWashington, D.C., kodwa baboshwa eVirginia ngenxa yokwephula umthetho we-Infaceal Perfect kazwelo. INkantolo yavumelana ngokuthi imingcele yobuhlanga emithethweni yomshado yayiphula kokubili iSivikeli esihlangene neSinqumo sika-Classius seSiphetho se-14. IJanest Warren wabhala: "Inkululeko yokushada iqashelwe isikhathi eside njengenye yamalungelo abalulekile abalulekile ezwelonkelweni ehlelekile yokuphishekela injabulo kubantu abakhululekile."

Lelicala laba usizo ekususeni uhlelo olungokomthetho lobandlululo lobuhlanga. Laqeda imithetho emelene nobandlululo lwezinhlanga ku-16 ezifundazweni futhi lamisa ukuthi umshado uyilungelo eliyisisekelo elingancishwa ngokusekelwe kuphela ehlazweni. futhi wasebenza njengesibonelo esiyinhloko sezehlakalo zomshado zamuva ezilinganayo, kuhlanganise Obergefell v. Hodges. Isinqumo sabonisa ukuguqukela kakhulu ekuqapheleni ukuthi uhulumeni awunakubanquma ukuthi ubani ongase ashadele ngezinhlanga.

U - 0974: Akekho Ongaphezu KoMthetho

Phakathi nehlazo laseWatergate, uMongameli uRichard Nixon washo ilungelo lokuvimba amakhasethi kanye namaphepha abhalwe nguLeon Jaworski ongumshushisi Okhethekile. INkantolo ngazwi linye yakwenqaba ukusho kukaNixon, ibambelele ekutheni nakuba umongameli enelungelo elifanele lokuxhumana ngemfihlo, lelolungelo alinakudlula isidingo sobufakazi ecaleni lobugebengu. Umongameli uWarren Burger wabhala ukuthi "ayiyona imfundiso yokuhlukaniswa kwemibuso, noma isidingo sokufihla izingxoxo zezehlakaniphi, ngaphandle kwenye into, ingaqinisa ilungelo eliphelele, eliphelele lobumongameli."""

Isinqumo saphoqelela uNixon ukuba akhiphe amakhasethi, aveza ukuhileleka kwakhe ekuthuleni ibhanoyi futhi aholela ekuyekeni kwakhe ngokushesha ngemva kwalokho. United States v. uNixon wagcizelela isimiso sokuthi akekho umuntu, kuhlanganise noMongameli, ongaphezulu komthetho. Yamisa imingcele elungelweni lombuso, ikakhulukazi uma ilinganiswa ngokumelene nokuphatha ngokulunga kobulungisa. Icala liye lakhonjwa ezimpikiswaneni ezilandelayo zokulandisa komongameli, kuhlanganise nalabo abahilela ukuphenya nokuphenya kwegatsha elikhulu.

7. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Ukulingana komshado ngemibhangqwana efanayo ehlanganyela ubulili

ISichibiyelo se 14 se-Obergefell v. Hodges ihlanganisa amacala avela ezifundazweni eziningi lapho imibhangqwana exhunyiweyo yabekela khona inselele ukuvinjelwa emshadweni olinganayo. Inkantolo, esinqumweni esingu-5-4, yathi iSimemezelo seSimemezelo se-14 seSimendo sidinga ukugunyaza futhi siqaphele imishado efanayo. Umbono kaMahluleli u-Anthony Kennedy wagcizelela ukuthi ilungelo lokushada liyisisekelo, livikelwe yiyo yomibili iNkqubo ye-AT kanye neSikhungo sika-Classe. Wabhala ukuthi uMthetho-Simiso "Inkululeko kubo bonke abafinyelela kuyo," nokuthi imibhangqwana efanayo-extheklone isibopho esifanayo "isibondawodwa" esisekela ekwakhe ilungiselelo somshado.

Umshado osemthethweni owenziwe ngobulili obuvunyelwe ezweni lonke, ukugumbuqela ukuguqulwa komthetho-mthetho-sisekelo wezwe kuchaza ukushada njengokuphakathi kwendoda nowesifazane oyedwa. Kwamelela isiphetho samashumi eminyaka e-LGBTQ+ advocacy futhi kwalandela ukunqoba kwangaphambili iLeavnce v. Texas [2003], okuthi kuncishiswe isodoma. Oberge] kuhlale kusempikiswano yomthetho ephawulekayo, nakuba iye yabangela izimpikiswano eziqhubekayo ngenkululeko engokwenkolo, amalungelo okwamukela, nemingcele yamandla okwahlulela ekuqapheleni amalungelo amasha.

8. Shelby County v. UHoder (2013): Ukululaza iSivumelwano Samalungelo Abantu

Selby County v.Hanger , iNkantolo yachitha i-Gadi 4 ye-Voting Rights Act ka-1965, eyayinendlela yokunquma ukuthi yimaphi amagunya adinga ukubekwa kuqala kukahulumeni ngaphambi kokushintsha imithetho yokuvota. IJaji elinguJohn Roberts, libhalela iningi elingu-4, laphikisa ukuthi lomthetho uncike emininingwaneni ephelelwe yisikhathi kusukela ngo-1964 no1972 futhi kanjalo liphule i-"ubukhosi obulinganayo" bezifunda zezifundazwe. INkantolo yashiya isigaba 2 somthetho ophelele, ovumela ukuba icala ngenselele imithetho yokuvota.

Isinqumo saba nemiphumela esheshayo: isho ukuthi ngaphambili imfuneko yangaphambili yayimbozwe − ikakhulukazi eNingizimu/ekuhlolweni okuqinile kwemithetho yokuvota, kuhlanganise nezimfuneko eziqinile zomvoti we-ID, kunciphisa ukuvota kwasekuqaleni, futhi ukuvalwa kwezindawo zokuvota. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi Shelby County [[[FLL:1]] ikhiphe elinye lamathuluzi asebenzayo kakhulu ekulweni nobandlululo lohlanga ekuvoteni. Abaxhasi bagomela ukuthi lendlela yayiyi-achronothensitist futhi akufanele ibekwe ngaphansi kobuphathi obungavamile be-hulumeni. Icala liqokomisa ukulwisana ngokusemthethweni ngamalungelo okuvota kanye nokulingana kwamandla phakathi kwemibuso nohulumeni.

Ukuze uthole ukuhlaziywa okubanzi kwemiphumela, bheka umbiko weBrennan Center ngomphumela weShelby County.

Izakhamuzi E - United v. Federal Evont Commission (200): Inkululeko Yokukhuluma Nezimali Zomkhankaso

I-CITIZEN [Umthetho] we-[FLT wahlanganisa inzuzo engaguquguquki eyayifuna ukuveza ifilimu egxekayo kaHillary Clinton futhi iqhube izikhangiso eziyikhuthazayo phakathi nenkathi eyinhloko ka-2009. I-Bipartisan Campaigment Reformation Act (BRA) ayinqabela ukuxhumana okunjalo ngezinhlangano nangezinyunyana. INkantolo Ephakeme, esinqumweni esingu 5-4, yaqeda leyo mithetho, iphethe ukuthi iSinyuko Sokuqala sivikela inkampani futhi sisebenzisa izingxoxo zezombangazwe. UJaji Kennedy wabhala ukuthi izindleko ezizimele, ngisho nangezinhlangano zezezezemali, azifaki ingozi enkulu yokukhohlakala inzuzo.

Isinqumo sakhipha inqwaba yemali kwezombangazwe zaseMelika. Yavumela ukusungulwa kwama-PAC amakhulu, anganyusa izimali ezingenamkhawulo kubantu ngabanye, ezinhlanganweni, nezinyunyana zokusekela noma ukumelana nababezohlolwa, uma nje bengaxhumani ngqo nemikhankaso. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi i-Citizens United iye yasiza ithonya labacebeli abacebile nezithakazelo ezikhethekile, ihlanekezela ukumelelwa kwentando yentando yeningi. Abasekeli baphikisa ngokuthi isivikelo esine sezombangazwe esinengxenye enkulu nokuthi imali engeziwe iholela empikiswaneni enkulu. Icala lilokhu lisenye yempikiswano enkulu nehambisana nomthetho wezezimali.

10. Bonke abesifazane banempilo v. Hellerstedt (2016): Ukuvikela ukukhishwa kwezisu

Whome Woman’s Health v. Hellerstedt wabekela imithetho emibili yaseTexas inselele `H.B.] eyayidinga abakhi bomsulo wokukhipha isisu ukuba bavume amalungelo esibhedlela esiseduze nasezindaweni zokukhipha isisu ukuze bahlangabezane nezindinganiso zezikhungo zokuhlinza. Lezimfuneko zaziyovala imitholampilo eminingi esifundazweni. INkantolo, esinqumweni se-5-3, yawaphula womabili amalungiselelo, isebenzisa indinga-"umthwalo onzima" ovela esibhedlela esiseduze. Case[[FLT] v[FLT][F:3]]. Umbono ka-Breyey u-Empey wathola ukuthi imithetho ebeka isithiyo efuna ukukhishwa kwemizwana ngaphandle kokukhipha inzuzo enkulu.

Lesi sinqumo saqinisekisa ukuvalwa kwecala [[FLT: 0] ukumiswa kwecala. Isinqumo sagcizelela ukuthi izinkantolo kumelwe zilinganise imithwalo emelene nezinzuzo zokukhishwa kwesisu. Nokho, ukumiswa kwemithetho yezinga elithile nguMongameli uTrump waphula lomugqa wesimiso. Ngo-2021, iNkantolo ivumela umthetho ofanayo wase-Texas (S.B. 8) ukuba ithathe ithonya ngokusebenzisa indlela yokuqinisekisa, futhi [FL:] DoFF:5] [202] [2] [3] [3]] [FFF]] [evo] [3]

Isiphetho: Ithonya Elihlala Njalo Lezinqumo Zezwe

Lamacala ayishumi abonisa indima enkulu yeNkantolo Ephakeme ekuchazeni amalungelo omthetho-mfantu nenkululeko yomphakathi eUnited States. Kusukela ekusunguleni ukubukezelwa kokwahlulela Marbury [ ekuvikeleni ukulingana komshado ] , isinqumo ngasinye siye saguqula indawo engokomthetho futhi sabonisa ukushintsha okuqhubekayo (*). Nakuba inqubo yeNkakhulu nefilosofi iqhubeka iveza izimiso zalezindaba ziqhubeka zithonya izimpikiswano zenkululeko, ukulingana, nokulunga, nokulunga. Ukuqonda lezizibo ezishaya umthetho wemithetho kubalulekile kunoma ubani ofuna ukuqonda amandla omthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-sisekelo waseMelika kanye nokulwa okuqhubekayo ukuqaphela izithembiso ze-bushiciststststst.