Ukuqonda Igatsha Lokwahlulela Esimisweni SaseMelika

Igatsha lokwahlulela likahulumeni lichaza imithetho edluliswa yiKhongolose nezenzo ezithathwa yigatsha eliphethe. Ngale misebenzi yokuchaza, liqinisekisa ukuthi zonke izenzo zikahulumeni zihambisana noMthetho-sisekelo futhi amalungelo alo avikelekile. Nakuba igatsha lomthetho libhala imithetho negatsha eliphetheyo liyiphoqelela, igatsha lokwahlulela lihlukane njengomchasi ongathathi hlangothi wengxabano engokomthetho. Lesi sakhiwo sikha isimiso sokuhlola nokulinganisa okuvimbela noma yiliphi igatsha elilodwa ekutholeni amandla aphakeme. Kubafundi, abafundisi, nezakhamuzi, ukuqonda indlela imisebenzi yenkantolo okubalulekile ngayo ukuqaphela umthetho.

INhlangano Yomthetho - sisekelo YeSikhungo Sikahulumeni

ISiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo wase-U.S. simisa igatsha lokwahlulela. Ngokungafani nezincazelo eziningiliziwe zeSishaya-mthetho nobumongameli, isihloko soMthetho-sisekelo esiphathelene nejaji sifushane ngokuphawulekayo. Ingxenye 1 ithi: "Umbuso wokwahlulela wase-United States, uzobekwa eNkantolo eyodwa ephakeme, futhi ezinkantolo eziphansi njengeSishaya-Mkhandlu zingamiswa futhi zimiswe."lolu limi lweSishaya igunya lokwakha izinkantolo ezingaphansi futhi linqume ukubusa kwazo. Abahleli bamakhemu bashiya imininingwane eminingi ukuba isebenze ngezizukulwane ezizayo, beqaphela ukuthi indima yejajikidiary ingenze nesizwe.

UMthetho-sisekelo unikeza amajaji asemthethweni ithuba lokuphila phakathi "nokuziphatha okuhle" futhi unqabela ukunciphisa amaholo abo lapho bewasebenzela. Lezisivikelo zaklanyelwa ukuqinisekisa ukuzimela kokwahlulela − izahlulelo zingakhipha izinqumo ezisekelwe emthethweni nakunembeza kunokusaba ukuziphindiselela kwezombangazwe noma ukucindezela kwezimali. Lokhu kwakhiwa kubhekwa njengetshe lesisekelo lesimiso somthetho waseMelika.

Izakhiwo ZeNkantolo Yesizwe

Ijaji likahulumeni lihlelwe ngesigaba sabefundisi esinezintathu, isilinganiso ngasinye sisingatha izinhlobo ezihlukene zamacala nezinxephezelo. Lesi sakhiwo sivumela ukuphatha kahle kwezezimali futhi sidala indlela ecacile yokunxusa.

Izinkantolo Zesigodi: Izinga Lokuqulwa Kwecala

Izinkantolo zesigodi zingamahhashi asebenzayo esimiso sikahulumeni. Kunezigodi ezingu-94 zomthetho kahulumeni, kuhlanganise okungenani eyodwa kuzo zonke izifunda, kanye neSigodi saseColumbia nase Puerto Rico. Inkantolo ngayinye yesigodi inegunya emacaleni amaningi kahulumeni nawabantu. Amacala aqhutshelwa phambi komahluleli futhi, ezimweni eziningi, ikomiti yamajaji. Izinkantolo zesifunda zisingatha amacala ahlanganisa imithetho kahulumeni, imibuzo engokomthetho-mthetho, izingxabano phakathi kwezakhamuzi zezifundazwe ezihlukene (isigaba sokubusa) lapho isamba sempikiswano singaphezu kuka-R350 000, kanye nezindaba ezithile ezihilela uhulumeni wase-United States njengeqembu.

Amajaji enkantolo yesigodi aqondisa ukuqulwa kwecala, ahlulele ngezenzo, futhi akhiphe izinqumo noma izahlulelo. Bafeza indima ebalulekile ekuthuthukiseni umlando oyiqiniso wecala, okubalulekile kunoma isiphi isikhalo secala esilandelayo. Amacala angokoqobo azwakele kulelizinga ahlanganisa ukushushumbisa izidakamizwa, ukumangalelwa kwamalungelo omphakathi, izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho, nokucwaswa kwemisebenzi.

Izinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala: Izinga Lokuphonsa Izicelo

Ngaphezu kwezinkantolo zesigodi kuhlala izinkantolo ze-United States zezokudlulisa izigwegwe, ezibizwa nangokuthi izinkantolo zesifunda. Kunezifunda eziyi-13: izifunda eziyi-11 zesifunda zazinobude obuyi-1 kuya ku-11, i-Federal Friesters, eziphethe wonke amazwe asemthethweni okhethekile njengomthetho ogunyaziwe nomthetho omelene nohulumeni.

Izinkantolo zokudlulisa amacala amacala asemasha noma zilalele ofakazi. Kunalokho, iqembu labahluleli abathathu lihlola amatyala enkantolo yesifunda ukuze kuhlolwe ukuthi amaphutha angokomthetho ayenzeka yini. Bahlola umbhalo wecala, bafunda iziphakamiso ezibhalwe phansi ezidluliselwe amacala, futhi bezwa izimpikiswano zomlomo. Inkantolo ingasiqinisekisa isinqumo senkantolo ephansi, isenzela, noma ibuye idlulise icala lamacala aqhubekayo. Izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo zokudlulisa amacala zibopha zonke izinkantolo zesifunda kulesosifunda, futhi ngokuvamile imisa izenzakalo ezibalulekile ezimisa umthetho kuleso sifunda.

INkantolo Ephakeme Yase - United States

INkantolo Ephakeme iyinkantolo ephakeme kakhulu ezweni. Ihlanganisa amajaji angu-9 aphethe nezikhulu zezobulungisa eziyisishiyagalombili ezihlangene nomongameli futhi eziqashelwa yiSigele. Umsebenzi oyinhloko weNkantolo ukubukeza izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo zikahulumeni eziphansi nezinkantolo eziphakeme ezihilela imibuzo eqinile kahulumeni. INkantolo ikhetha amacala ayo enqunywe ngenqubo engokomthetho ebizwa ngokuthi imvume yokunikeza izicelo ze-certiorari. Kulezi zingu-7000 izicelo ezigcinwe igama ngalinye, iNkantolo ivumelana kakhulu nokuzwa kuphela amacala angu-70 kuya ku-80.

Lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme ikhipha isinqumo, ingujuqu futhi ibopha izwe lonke. Ukuchaza kwayo uMthetho-sisekelo nomthetho kahulumeni kubeka izimpawu okufanele zilandelwe yizo zonke ezinye izinkantolo. Lokhu kunikeza iNkantolo amandla angavamile okubumba umphakathi waseMelika, njengoba kuboniswe ezicabeni ezifana Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ [1954], eyaqeda ukwahlukana kwezinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi, kanye no-OGObergefell v. Hodges [20]], eyamisa ilungelo elingokomthetho elingumshado ofanayo.

Ukuqulwa Kwamacala Nezinhlobo Zawo

Izinkantolo ze-Federal zinemingcele elinganiselwe − zingazwa amacala agunyazwe uMthetho-sisekelo noma imithetho kahulumeni kuphela. Izigaba ezimbili eziyinhloko zingamandla kahulumeni okuhlola imibuzo kanye nokulawula kwezindlela ezihlukahlukene.

i-traderal quotity ihlanganisa amacala avela ngaphansi koMthetho-sisekelo, imithetho kahulumeni, noma izivumelwano. Lokhu kuhlanganisa ukumangalelwa kobugebengu obubodwa bukahulumeni, amasudi esizwe agunyaza ukwephulwa kwamalungelo omthetho-mthetho-sisekelo, kanye nezinselele ezinqubeni zikahulumeni.

Ukulawula ukuphakama kwezwe kuvumela izinkantolo zikahulumeni ukuba zilalele amacala phakathi kwezakhamuzi zasezifundazweni ezihlukene noma phakathi kwesakhamuzi sase-U.S. nesakhamuzi sakwamanye amazwe, uma isilinganiso esiphikisanayo singaphezu kuka $75000. Lelilungiselelo liqinisekisa ukuthi izithathi-mali ezivela ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene azithathi hlangothi futhi azinalo ubandlululo ezinkantolo zikahulumeni.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zinegunya elikhethekile ezindabeni ezithile, njengokuwa kwamalungelo emali, ukuzisholo kokusemthethweni nokusemthethweni komgunyathi, ukuphatha amaphoyisa nokwenza amaphepha olwandle, kanye namacala iUnited States eyiqembu kuwo.

Ukubukezwa Kokwahlulela Nemvelaphi Yako

Amandla abaluleke kakhulu asetshenziswa yigatsha lokwahlulela ukubukeza kokwahlulela, “‘ igunya lokumemezela imithetho nezenzo zokuphatha ngaphandle komthetho. Umthetho-sisekelo awuwaniki ngokuqondile lamandla, kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme yawamisa embukisweni wecala burybry v. Madison.

IJaji eliyinhloko uJohn Marshall, ebhalela iNkantolo, wacabanga ukuthi uMthetho-sisekelo ungumthetho ophakeme wezwe nokuthi kumelwe uchazwe yijaji. Wabhala ngokudume kakhulu: “Kuyisifundazwe nesibopho somnyango wokwahlulela ukusho ukuthi uyini umthetho. ” Lesi sinqumo saqinisa indima yejaji njengegatsha likahulumeni elilinganayo futhi sakha ishekethi elinamandla emagatsheni omthetho nomphathi.

Inqumiso yokwahlulela iyasebenza kuzo zombili izenzo zikahulumeni nombuso. INkantolo iye yabulala amakhulu eziyalezo phakathi namakhulu eminyaka, kusukela kumthetho wezezomnotho weNew Deance kuya kumthetho wezezimali nokunakekelwa kwempilo. Lombuso ulokhu uyindaba yempikiswano, futhi abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi inikeza amajaji angahleliwe igunya elikhulu kakhulu phezu kwemithetho emisiwe yezentando yeningi.

AbaHluleli AbawuFederal: Ukumiswa, Ukudilizwa, Nokudilizwa

Inqubo yokukhetha amajaji kahulumeni ihlelwe eSiphakamisweni II soMthetho-sisekelo: umongameli othatha iziqu, futhi iSigele sinikeza iseluleko nemvume ngevoti eningi. Kubahluleli basenkantolo ephansi, isiko leSigele ngokuvamile livumela abasizi ukuba bavimbele izikhothakatho ngesimiso "i-blueps". Izinkulumo zeNkantolo ePhakeme ziphikisana kakhulu futhi zihehe ukucuthwa okukhulu komphakathi.

Uma amajaji kahulumeni eseqinisiwe, athatha izikhundla zawo zokuphila, aziphathe kahle. Lokhu kuphila kuwenza avikeleke ekucindezeleni kwezombangazwe futhi kuwavumela ukuba enze imithetho engathandeki esikhathini esifushane. Okuwukuphela kwendlela yokususa iNdlu yabameleli nokuthola isiqinisekiso seSigele. Idlanzana kuphela lamajaji asemthethweni aye afakwa futhi asuswa, ngokuvamile ngenxa yokonakala noma ukuziphatha kobugebengu.

Isimiso sokuphila esiqinile sinezela ekuzimeleni kwejaji kodwa futhi sisho ukuthi umongameli oyedwa angabumba izinkantolo zikahulumeni amashumi amaningi eminyaka ngokumiswa kwemithetho. Lokhu kuye kwaholela ekunyuseleni ukuhlukana kwezombangazwe ngokubheka iziqu zomthetho, ikakhulukazi eNkantolo Ephakeme.

Izinkolelo - ze Zokuchazwa Komthetho - sisekelo

Amajaji namajaji asebenzisa ama - lens efilosofi ahlukahlukene ukuze achaze umthetho - sisekelo.

Ukudazulula

Izazi zoqobo ziphikisa ngokuthi uMthetho-sisekelo kufanele uchazwe ngokwencazelo yokuqala yomphakathi yombhalo wawo ngesikhathi ugunyaziwe. Bakholelwa ukuthi amajaji akufanele aphoqelele izindinganiso zawo siqu noma ahlanganise lencwadi ukuze abonise imizwelo yanamuhla. UbuOrranti buhlangene namajaji alandela inqubo engokwesiko njengasemuva u-Antonin Scalia no-Clarence Thomas. Abaxhasi bayiphikisayo bayinqanda ukuba ihlulelo yomthetho futhi ihloniphe izinqubo zedemokrati, ngoba izinguquko kumthetho-mscleary kufanele zifike ngenqubo yokulungisa isimo, hhayi ukuchaza kabusha.

Umthetho - sisekelo Ophilayo Uyasondela

Abasekeli bomthetho-sisekelo ophilayo babheka lencwadi njengesimiso esivumelanayo okumelwe sivumelane nezimiso nezindinganiso. Bakholelwa ukuthi amagama abanzi anjenge "inqubo engaphambili" ne"sivikelo" kufanele achazwe uma kucatshangelwa izimo zamanje. Lendlela ivame ukuhlotshaniswa nomthetho okhululekile njengomshophi uRuth Bad Ginsburg noStephen Breyer. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuthi inikeza amahluleli akhali kakhulu futhi ilulaza umthetho ngokuvumela izintando zomuntu ukuba zithonye izinqumo.

Uma kusetshenziswa, bambalwa abahluleli abanamathela ngokuqinile kwifilosofi eyodwa; abaningi basebenzisa inhlanganisela yokucabanga kombhalo, umlando, kanye nokuvumelana. Nokho, lemibono ephikisanayo ishukumisa izimpikiswano eziningi zeNkantolo Ephakeme eziphikisana kakhulu.

Amacala Enkantolo Aphakeme Nethonya Lawo

Izinqumo zeNkantolo Ephakeme ziye zathonya kakhulu ukuphila kwaseMelika. Nakuba isihloko sokuqala sikhuluma ngamacala amathathu, amanye amaningi afanelwe ukunakwa. Ngezansi kunezinqumo ezengeziwe ezibonisa indima yeNkantolo.

  • [FLT]] Marbury v. Madison (1803) – Imise isimiso sokubukeza.
  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) - I-Aftreding quare quality kahulumeni kanye negunya elisikiwe leSishaya-Mkhandlu, libamba leyo mibuso ingenakukhokha intela izinhlangano zikahulumeni.
  • [FLT] Scott v. Sandford (1857] - - Ibuse ukuthi ama-Afrika angekwazi ukuba yizakhamuzi nokuthi uMkhandlu awunakuvimbela ubugqila emasimini; kamuva wagumbuqelwa yiziphendulo ze 13 ne 14.
  • [FLT] Plessy v. (1996][FLT] - Ufinyeze ubandlululo lobuhlanga ngaphansi kwemfundiso "yohlukene kodwa elilinganayo"; iphendulwe [brown v. hotela yemfundo[.
  • [[INTLA:0] Miranda v.Arizona (1966) – imfuneko yamaphoyisa ukutshela abasolwayo ngamalungelo abo okuthula kanye nommeli phambi kokubuza imvume.
  • [FLT] New York Times Co. v. United States (1971]--inkululeko evikelweyo yezindaba ngokuvumela ukunyatheliswa kwePentagon Papers naphezu kwezicelo zikahulumeni zokhuseleko lwesizwe.
  • [FLT]Incing United v.FEC (2010) - - Iphawule ukuthi imali esetshenziswa ngokwezombangazwe ngezinhlangano ivikelwe ngenkululeko yokukhuluma, ibuye isebenzise umthetho wezezimali.

Ubuhlobo Phakathi Kwezinkantolo Zomphakathi NoMbuso

I-United States inesimiso senkantolo ezimbili: izinkantolo ezihlukene zikahulumeni nezikahulumeni zisebenza kanye kanye. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha amacala amaningi kakhulu (cishe amaphesenti angu-95 awo wonke amacala) okuqulwa kwawo (kuhlanganise umthetho womkhaya, izingxabano zesivumelwano, amacala empahla, kanye nezigebengu eziningi zobugebengu. Izinkantolo zeFederal zisingatha izindaba ezihilela umthetho kahulumeni noma amaqembu avela ezindaweni ezihlukene.

Izimiso zenkantolo yoMbuso ziyahlukahluka, kodwa ngokuvamile ziveza isimo sikahulumeni ngezinkantolo eziqulwayo, izinkantolo eziphakathi, nenkantolo ephakeme yezwe. Izinkantolo eziphakeme zikahulumeni zingabalwali bokugcina bomthetho kahulumeni, ngaphandle kokuba kuhileleke umbuzo kahulumeni. INkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ingahlola izinqumo zenkantolo zikahulumeni eziphakamisa izimpikiswano zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho noma incazelo kahulumeni.

Lokhu kuhlukaniswa kwezisebenzi kuvumela isimiso ngasinye ukuba sithuthukise ubuchwepheshe ezingxenyeni zaso siqu zomthetho kuyilapho sinikeza izikhungo ezihlanekezelwe zamalungelo abantu. Kudala futhi ukuba yinkimbinkimbi: abasebenzi ngokuvamile kumelwe banqume ukuthi bazoletha icala enkantolo kahulumeni noma kahulumeni, ukukhetha okungathinta umphumela ngokuphawulekayo.

Ukuzimela Nokwethenjwa Umphakathi

Ukuzimela kokwahlulela kusho ukuthi abahluleli banganquma amacala asekelwe emthethweni nasemaqinisweni ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuphindiselwa noma ukuvunyelwa. Lesi simiso sibalulekile ekuhluleleni ngokungakhethi nasekubuseni umthetho. UMthetho-sisekelo uvikela ukuzimela ngokuphila nangesivikelo seholo, kodwa ukuzimela kuxhomeke futhi ezimisweni zomthetho nasekwethenjwa umphakathi.

Eminyakeni yamuva, ukukhathazeka ngenkululeko yokwahlulela kuye kwakhula. Abagxeki bakhomba ekuhlaseleni abahluleli abalwayo, ukusongela ukuphepha kwabo, nemizamo yokumisa izinkantolo noma ukulinganisela imingcele. Lezi zinselele zigcizelela isidingo sokuqapha okuqhubekayo ukuze kulondolozwe indima yejaji njengendawo yokungathathi hlangothi ekuxazululeni izingxabano.

Ukuthembela komphakathi ezinkantolo kubalulekile. Uma izakhamuzi zikholelwa ukuthi amajaji alungile futhi izinqumo zisekelwe emthethweni, cishe ziyokwamukela imiphumela futhi zivumelane neziqondiso zenkantolo. Ukukhohliswa kwecala kungalulaza igunya lalo nesimiso esikhulu sokubusa kwentando yeningi.

Amasheke Nokulinganisela: Indima Yegatsha Lokwahlulela

Igatsha lokwahlulela alizihlukanisi, futhi amanye amagatsha amabili ayahlola amandla alo, bese liwahlola.

Igatsha eliphethe liphoqelela iziyalezo zenkantolo futhi lisebenzise izinqumo. Umongameli umisa amajaji, kodwa iSigele kumelwe siwaqinisekise. ISishaya-mthetho singadala noma siqede izinkantolo zikahulumeni eziphansi, simise inani lamajaji eNkantolo Ephakeme, futhi sinikeze izinqumo zomthetho-mthetho ukuba zithathe izigwebo zomthetho ngokomthetho. UKhomishane ulawula uhlelo lwemali lwejaji futhi angakhipha abahluleli.

Lokhu kuqinisekisa ukuthi alikho igatsha elilodwa elilawulayo. Ngokwesibonelo, lapho iNkantolo Ephakeme ishaya izingxenye zomthetho weVoting Rights Act Shelby County v. UHamer (2013), uMkhandlu wawungawulungisa umthetho kodwa ungakhetha ku-(a) ukuhlola kwezombangazwe emandleni okwahlulela. Ngokuhlukile, uma uMongameli Richard Nixon enqaba ukuphendula amakhasethi phakathi nehlazo leWatergate, iNkantolo Ephakeme yayala ukuba bakhulu bakhululwe, futhi uNixon wavuma.

Izinselele Zanamuhla Ezibhekene Ne - yudiary

Ijaji likahulumeni libhekene nezinselele eziningana zamanje. Okokuqala, ukuthweswa kwecala kuye kwakhula kakhulu, okuholela ekulibalekeni nasekubekeni imuva. Nakuba inani lemikhumbi yokwahlulela selilokhu limi kabanzi, ubunkimbinkimbi nomthamo wamacala seyenyuka.

Okwesibili, inqubo yokuqinisekisa amajaji iye yathathwa njengeyeqisayo. Inkantolo ePhakeme ngokukhethekile iye yaba izikhundla zempi ezilwayo, futhi izikhala ezenzeka phakathi neminyaka yokhetho zidala impikiswano enkulu. Iziqu zamagama eziphansi zivame ukubambezela, zishiye izihlalo eziningi zingenalutho isikhathi eside.

Okwesithathu, ubuchwepheshe buphakamisa imibuzo emisha engokomthetho mayelana nokungafihliwe, ukukhuluma ngokukhululekile nobufakazi obudinga ukuba inkantolo ichaze imithetho ekhona emongweni wezindaba. Okwesine, ijaji kumelwe likhulume ngokungafani ekutholeni ubulungisa, ngoba abantu abaningi abanamali yokukhokha futhi kumelwe basebenzise isimiso ngokwabo.

Naphezu kwalezi zinselele, igatsha lokwahlulela liseyinhlangano ehlonishwayo. ikhono lalo lokuzivumelanisa nezimiso eziyisisekelo zokungakhethi nokuzibusa liyonquma ukuphumelela kwalo eminyakeni ezayo.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kwegatsha Lokwahlulela

Igatsha lokwahlulela alisona nje isichaza - mthetho esingenzi lutho semithetho kodwa lingumgcini okhuthele woMthetho-sisekelo. Ngesakhiwo sayo ``Izinkantolo zesifunda, izinkantolo zesifunda, neNkantolo ePhakamileyo' inikeza uhlelo lokuxazulula izingxabano nokuvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye. Amandla okwahlulela, asungulwe [ ukuchaza i-mouse v. Madison, unikeza i-judicariary indima eyinhloko ekulondolozeni ukulingana kwamandla phakathi kwamagatsha amathathu. Ngokuqonda indlela igatsha elisebenza ngayo, izakhamuzi zingaqonda kangcono izisekelo zedemokhrasi nekubaluleka kwe-judiac. Ngokuqhubekayo, hlola izingosi zeNkathi [FOct:][FFF] [F] [F] [5]