Ukuqonda Umthwalo Wobufakazi Ekuqhubekeni Okungokomthetho

Umthwalo wobufakazi uyisisekelo sezimiso zomthetho emhlabeni wonke. Inquma ukuthi yiliphi iqembu elinomthwalo wemfanelo wokufakazela amaqiniso empikiswaneni futhi lithonye kakhulu umphumela wanoma yiliphi icala. Ochwepheshe bezomthetho, abaqaphi, ngisho nalabo abazama nje ukuqonda izenzakalo ezingokomthetho, ukuqonda lomqondo kubalulekile. Lesi sihloko sinikeza ukuhloliswa okuningi kobufakazi, izimpawu, nezindinganiso, kanye nemiphumela esebenzayo, okudwetshwa kokubili umthetho ovamile namasiko omthetho.

Uyini Umthwalo Wobufakazi?

Okubaluleke kakhulu, umthwalo wobufakazi isibopho esibekwe eqenjini sokufakazela iqiniso noma impikiswano. Ngaphandle kwalokhu kwabiwa, inkantolo ibingeke ibe nendlela ecacile yokunquma ukuthi isiphi isenzakalo okumelwe sithathwe. Lomthwalo uqinisekisa ukuthi izicelo azimukeleki ngaphandle kobufakazi obanele nokuthi umkhandlu uqinisekisa umthwalo wokuzimisa.

Inkulumo ethi "umthwalo wobufakazi" eqinisweni ihlanganisa imiqondo emibili ehlukene kodwa ehlobene: umthwalo wokukhiqiza (ngezinye izikhathi obizwa ngokuthi umthwalo wokuqhubekela phambili) nomthwalo wokuthonya. Bobabili babalulekile ekuqondeni indlela izilingo eziqala ngayo.

Umthwalo Wokukhiqiza

Umthwalo wokukhiqizwa udinga umbhanqwana oveza ubufakazi obanele ukuze anikeze ubufakazi obuyiqiniso. Uma ummeli ehluleka ukuhlangabezana nalomthwalo, inkantolo ingakulahla lokho kumangalelwa ngaphandle kokucabangela ngisho nokucabangela impendulo yohlangothi oluphikisayo. Ngokwesibonelo, lapho ephule icala lesivumelwano, ummangalelwa kumelwe aveze isivumelwano nobufakazi bokuphuka phambi kokuba ummangalelwa aphendule. Lomthwalo ungashintsha phakathi kwamaqembu uma icala liqhubeka.

Umthwalo Wokuthonya

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, umthwalo wokuthonya, umsebenzi ukuqinisekisa umfinyeleli weqiniso (umahluleli noma umsizi) ukuthi ukuguqula kweqembu lezenzakalo kuyiqiniso. Lomthwalo ngokuvamile uhlala lapho iqembu liqinisekisa ukuthi icala lithatha isikhathi eside. Indinganiso yobufakazi.

Imisuka Engokomlando Yomthwalo Wobufakazi

Umqondo womthwalo wobufakazi uvela endulo. Umthetho wakuqala wahlanganisa isimiso semithetho edibitu probatio qui disit, engaphili i-qui negat [1] uqobo oluqinile kulowo ogomelayo, hhayi kulowo ophikayo. Le mithetho yamuva yezomthetho. Phakathi nenkathi yenkathi yenkathi ephakathi, umthetho wesiNgisi wasungula imithetho eqondile eqondile yesigaba okudingeka ukuba siveze ubufakazi, futhi izindinganiso zobufakazi zazicwe ngaphandle kokungabaza komthetho ovamile wezecala. Izesibonelo sesiNgisi [v]] umqondisi womthetho womphakathi.[FLTrangeticstions:][FLT][FLT][FON] 35] [35]

Izindinganiso Zobufakazi

Indinganiso yobufakazi ibhekisela ezingeni lokuqiniseka elidingekayo ukuze kubhekwe njengeqiniso. Izindinganiso ezintathu eziyinhloko zisetshenziswa ezimisweni eziningi zomthetho, ngayinye ivumelana nesimo senqubo.

Ukuqaphelisisa Ubufakazi

Lena indinganiso evame ukusetshenziswa ezicabeni zomphakathi. Kudinga ukuba ubufakazi bomunye uqobo bube obukholisa kakhulu kunobo { , ukuthi iqiniso elibuzwayo liyiqiniso kakhulu kunelithi (amathuba amakhulu kunawo 50%). Ngokwesibonelo, enkantolo yokulimaza komuntu siqu, ummangaleli kumelwe abonise ukuthi kungenzeka kakhulu kunokuba ukunganaki kommangalelwa kubangele ukulimala. Lendinganiso ilinganisela izithakazelo eziphikisanayo zamaqembu futhi ayidingi ukuqiniseka okuphelele. Isetshenziswa futhi ezindlebeni eziningi zombuso nasekwenzeni komthetho womkhaya.

Ubufakazi Obucacile Obukholisayo

Indinganiso ephakeme kuneyobufakazi obuqanjiwe, ubufakazi obucacile nobukholisayo idinga ukuba umgadi afakazele amaqiniso ngokwezinga eliphakeme, elivame ukuchazwa ngokuthi "ngezingako" noma "ngesizathu" lendinganiso isetshenziswa ezindabeni ezilinganiselwe zomphakathi nobubanzi lapho izigxobo ziphakeme kakhulu, njenge:

  • Ukukhwabanisa noma ukuthonya okungafanele ezimpikiswaneni zesivumelwano
  • Ukuzinikela ngokuzenzekelayo esikhungweni sengqondo
  • Ukumiswa kwamalungelo abazali
  • Imincintiswano iyobekela inselele ukuthi iyakufezeka yini

INkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. iye yaphawula ukuthi lendinganiso "iveza ukuthi ubufakazi kumelwe bube sobala, buqondile, futhi bunzima kangangokuthi umfinyeleli weqiniso angafinyelela ekuqinisekeni okucacile, ngaphandle kokunqikaza.

Ngaphandle Kokungabaza Okunengqondo

Lokhu kuyindinganiso ephakeme kakhulu yobufakazi obusetshenziswa emacala obugebengu. Kudinga ukuba umshushisi abonise zonke izici zobugebengu ngezinga elikhulu kangangokuba akekho umuntu onengqondo ongangabaza icala lommangalelwa. Indinganiso ayidingi ukuqiniseka okuphelele qha uma ubufakazi bushiya ungenakungabaza okunengqondo. Njengoba uMahluleli uHarlan echaze ngokudume kakhulu, kuyingozi kakhulu ukubeka icala umuntu ongenacala kunokuba avumele umuntu onecala akhululeke. Lendinganiso ivikela inkululeko yommangalelwa futhi ibonise umbono ongathi akanacala. Ngokungokoqobo, kusho ukuthi ngisho noma ummangalelwa enecala elisobala, uma kunencazelo esobala, isho ukuthi unecala.

Ubani Othwele Umthwalo Wobufakazi?

Cishe kuzo zonke izimiso zomthetho, iqembu eliqala icala noma elisho into linesiqinisekiso sokuqala esiwubufakazi. Lokhu kwabiwa kwaziwa ngokuthi "umthwalo wokunxenxa" futhi ngokuvamile lihlala liqinile kulo lonke icala.

Amacala Ezigebengu

Umshushisi unomthwalo wokubonisa icala lommangalelwa ngokungenakungabaza. Lokhu kwabiwa komthetho-mthetho emazweni amaningi (ngokwesibonelo, iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. ] eWinship [ [1970])) ikholelwa ukuthi i-Claus ye-Century idinga ubufakazi obungenakungabaza okunengqondo ekumangaleleni kobugebengu. Ummangalelwa ubhekwa njengongenacala futhi akadingenzeki ukufakazela lutho, nakuba bengase bakhethe ukunikeza ubufakazi noma baphakamise izivikelo eziqinile (njenge-eye-defense noma i-gem), bese kushintshwa umthwalo olinganiselwe womkhiqizo ekwamucushweni.

Amacala Angaphakathi

I-paltiff (ummangalelwa oletha icala) ngokuvamile ithwala umthwalo wokuqinisekisa zonke izici zokumangalelwa ngokucabangela ubufakazi. Ngokwesibonelo, ecaleni lokunganaki, ummangalelwa kumelwe abonise umthwalo, ukugqekeza, ukulahla, nokulimaza. Ummangalelwa angase avume ukuvuma (njengokudebeselela noma ukuphelelwa komthetho wokuzimela), futhi abese ethwala umthwalo wokuqinisekisa lezo zimpi.

Ukususa Umthwalo Wobufakazi

Nakuba umthwalo wokugcina wokuthonya ngokuvamile uhlala nomphakathi ugomela, umthwalo wokukhiqiza ungashintsha phakathi kwezinhlangothi. Lokhu kwenzeka lapho omunye enikeza ubufakazi obanele bokuhlangabezana nomthwalo wakhe wokuqala, ngaleyo ndlela ephoqelela omunye ukuba akhiphe ukuphikisa. Izenzakalo ezine ezivamile zibonisa ukuntengantenga:

Imibono

Ezinye iziphetho ezingokomthetho ziwushintsha ngokuzenzakalelayo umthwalo. Ngokwesibonelo, incwadi ebhalwe kahle futhi ithunyelwe kucatshangwa ukuthi yamukelwe. Umbangi ophikisayo kumelwe abe eseveza ubufakazi bokuphikisa lowo mbono.

2. Ukuzivikela Okuqinile

Lapho ummangalelwa ephakamisa isivikelo sokwenqaba (isib., ukucatshangelwa kwengozi ecaleni elishibilikile), ummangalelwa unomthwalo wokufakazela lokho kuvikela, ngisho nakuba ummangalelwa egcina umthwalo oyisisekelo wendaba.

3. Izimpi Zezigebengu Ezidinga Ubufakazi

Kwezinye izindawo, uma ummangalelwa oyisigebengu ephakamisa izaba zokusangana, ummangalelwa kumelwe abonise ukuthi uyasangana ngobufakazi obucacile nobukholisayo, kuye ngomthetho. Ngokufanayo, ukuzimela kungawususa umthwalo wokukhiqiza.

4. Umthwalo Obangelwa Ukukhanga Nokuhamba

Uma iqembu lithatha isinyathelo ukuze lithole isahlulelo esifingqiwe noma lidlulisele isinqumo, lingase lithwele umthwalo ukubonisa ukuthi inkantolo ephansi yenze iphutha. Iqembu elishukumisayo kumelwe libonise ukuthi akukho ukuphikisana kwangempela mayelana nezinto ezibonakalayo, futhi inkantolo ethatha isigwebo ivame ukubukeza ngokusheshiswa lokho okutholwa yinkantolo enkantolo.

Ukukhandlwa Umthwalo Wobufakazi

Ukuqonda umthwalo wobufakazi kubaluleke kakhulu ekusebenziseni iqhinga elingokomthetho nokulungiselela amacala. Iqembu elithwele umthwalo kumelwe liqoqe bonke ubufakazi obuvumelanayo, lilindele ukuphikisa, futhi linikeze ukulandisa okushukumisayo. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, iqembu elingenamthwalo ngokuvamile lingamane lihlasele ubufakazi obuphelele bolunye uhlangothi. Iphuzu eliyinhloko elibalulekile lihlanganisa:

  • Ukukhetha: Ama-Attorney ahlola ukuthi angahlangabezana yini nomthwalo ngaphambi kokufaka icala noma ukuletha amacala. Uma ubufakazi bubuthakathaka, bangase benqabe ukuqhubeka.
  • Iqoqo elifihlayo ne-Evidence Gather:[ Idili elithwele umthwalo kumelwe lisebenzise amathuluzi okuthola ngokuphumelelayo ukuthola amabhukwana, izimpahla, nobufakazi obungochwepheshe.
  • Amacebo aqinile: phakathi nokulingwa, iqembu elithatha umthwalo liveza indaba yalo kuqala futhi kumelwe lilindele ukuphinda kukhankanye. Isiphambano esihlolayo ngokuvamile sihlasela ukukholeka kokululaza ukwaneliseka komthwalo.
  • [[NTL:0] Iziyalezo: Abahluleli abafundisa abasizi bejaji ukuthi iliphi idili elithwele umthwalo nokuthi iluphi indinganiso esebenzayo. Ukungaziqondi kahle lezi ziyalezo kungaholela ephutheni elingahlehli.
  • [ Iqhinga le-Appelete: Ekudluliseni, ummangalelwa uvame ukuthwala umthwalo wokubonisa ukuthi inkantolo equliweyo yenza iphutha elingokomthetho, hhayi ukuthi isinqumo sasimelene nobukhulu bobufakazi.

Umthwalo Wobufakazi Ezimisweni Ezihlukene Ezingokomthetho

Nakuba izimiso ezivamile ezingenhla zamukelwa kabanzi, imininingwane iyahlukahluka ngokwesimiso sokulawula.

Izimiso Zomthetho Ezivamile (U.S., UK, Canada, Australia, India)

Isakhiwo esidwetshwe ngemitako emithathu nemithwalo eshintshayo . Nokho, izifundazwe nezifunda zingaba nokuhluka okuncane kwezindinganiso. Ngokwesibonelo, ezinye izifundazwe zase-U.S. zisebenzisa "Ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo" ezimpilweni zomthetho wezwe, kuyilapho ezinye zisebenzisa ubufakazi obucacile nobukholisayo.

Izimiso Zomthetho Zangaphakathi (France, eJalimane, eJapane, eBrazil)

Emazweni omthetho wesizwe, umthwalo wobufakazi ngokuvamile ubekwa ngokucacile emithethweni yomphakathi. Ngokwesibonelo, i-French Civil Common Code ithi "othi wenza isibopho kumelwe akwenze kufakazelwe. Izindinganiso zobufakazi zivame ukungaqinile kakhulu kunomthetho ovamile, ngokuvamile zifuna "ukuqiniseka ngesikhathi esingesikho" (ukuqiniseka ngecala) ezicaleni, okufana nokungangangatshazwa. Umthwalo womkhiqizo nokuthonya akuvamile uphawulekanga kakhulu njengemibono ehlukene.

Izibonelo Eziwusizo

Ukuze ubone indlela umthwalo wobufakazi osebenza ngayo ezimweni ezingokoqobo, cabangela izibonelo ezilandelayo:

Isibonelo 1: Icala Lengozi Yemoto

Adam sus Brenda ngenxa yokunganaki ngemva kokushayisana kwemuva. U-Adamu kumelwe abonise ngokucabangisisa kobufakazi bokuthi uBrenda (wahluleka ukuqapha) nokuthi lokhu kwabangela ukulimala kwakhe. U-Adamu unikeza izithombe, ubufakazi, namarekhodi ezokwelapha. Uma abahluleli abangu- 51% beqiniseka ukuthi uBrenda wayenephutha, uAdamu uyanqoba. Uma ubufakazi bungu-50, uAdamu ulahlekelwa ngoba akahlangabezananga nomthwalo wakhe.

Isibonelo 2: Isigebengu Esinecala Elibi

Izwe limangalela uDave ngokuthi uweba kakhulu. Umshushisi kumelwe afakazele zonke izici (ukuthatha impahla, ngaphandle kwemvume, ngenhloso yokuyincisha unomphela) ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo. Ummeli kaDave unikeza ubufakazi bokuzichaza okunephutha kanye nokushaya i-alibi. Ngisho noma abahluleli becabanga ukuthi uDave cishe unecala, uma benokungabaza okunengqondo, kumelwe bakhululwe. Ukubekwa kwecala kusho ukuthi uDave akakho nanini okubonisa ukuthi akanacala.

Isibonelo 3: Ukuxabana Kwezingane

Inkantolo inquma ukuwinwa kwezingane ngokusekelwe ezithakazelweni ezingcono kakhulu zomntwana. Iqembu elifuna ushintsho kunesimo sesimo lingase libe nomthwalo onzima owengeziwe, njengobufakazi obucacile nobukholisayo bokuthi ilungiselelo lamanje liyingozi. Lokhu kuvikela ukuqina kwengane.

Ukungaqondi Okuvamile Ngemithwalo Ewubufakazi

Abantu abaningi abawuqondi umthwalo wobufakazi onzima nsuku zonke nangokomthetho.

  • Awukho "ngeqiniso eliyiyo" imithwalo engokomthetho ingeyalokho okungafakazelwa ngokwemithetho yobufakazi, hhayi ukuqiniseka kwefilosofi.
  • I-Burden ayihlalanga kummangaleli: Uma ukuzivikela koyebo sekuphakanyisiwe, ummangalelwa angathwala umthwalo.
  • Izilinganiso azishintshani: Usebenzisa indinganiso engalungile (umz., ukusebenzisa kuqala ecaleni lobugebengu) kungaphula inqubo efanele.
  • I-univerde yobufakazi ku-vs zesayensi. umthetho: Uphendlo lwesayensi lusebenzisa "umthwalo" ohlukile (ngokuvamile "Ngaphandle kokungabaza okunengqondo" ekucabangeni okungokwesayensi kuhlukile ezindinganisweni ezingokomthetho).

Indima Yomahluleli NobuJudiya

Ekuqulweni kwecala, umahluleli uyayala abahluleli bejaji ukuthi yiliphi iqembu elithwele umthwalo wobufakazi nokuthi indinganiso isebenza kanjani. Khona - ke amajaji asebenzisa leyondinganiso emaqinisweni. Emahluleleni asebhentshini (emahluleleni kuphela), umahluleli wenza zombili lezindima. futhi ukwahlulela kunquma izindaba ezingokomthetho zokuqala ngokuthi ingabe iqembu liwuhlangabeze umthwalo walo wokukhiqiza (ngokwesibonelo, ukuthi linganikeza isinqumo esiqondisiwe).

Isiphetho

Umthwalo wobufakazi ubalulekile wombono ongokomthetho wokuthi izimpikiswano zixazululwa kanjani enkantolo. Ngokunika umthwalo wemfanelo wokuqinisekisa amaqiniso nokubeka izindinganiso ezihlukene kuye ngezintambo zecala, umthetho ulinganisela isidingo seqiniso elinembile elithola isivikelo samalungelo abalulekile − ikakhulukazi ilungelo lokukhululwa ezicaleni zobugebengu. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ungummeli, ummeli wokuziphendulela, noma umuntu ofuna ukuqonda ukuqulwa komthetho, ukuqondwa okuqinile kobufakazi kuyokusiza ukuba uqondise izimpawu zesimiso sobulungisa.

Ukuze ufunde ngokwengeziwe, cabangela ukuhlola imithombo yezokwaziswa I-Cornell Legin Information Institute, U.S. izinkantolo ezifundisayo ikhasi[, noma [ incazelo yoMahluleli yomthwalo wobufakazi emacaleni obugebengu .