Ukubukeza Igatsha Lokwahlulela

Igatsha lokwahlulela likahulumeni liyinsika yesithathu elinganayo yesimiso sombuso wase-U.S., isolwa ngokuchaza imithetho edluliswa yiKhongolose futhi ifezwe nguMongameli. Ngokungafani namagatsha emithetho nezikhulu, angowezombangazwe ngokwemvelo, ijaji liklanyelwe ukuba libe yilungu lezezombangazwe, ligxile kuphela ekubusweni komthetho kanye nokuvikelwa kwamalungelo omthetho. Indima yalo iwukuqinisekisa ukuthi ubulungisa bulawulwa kahle, izingxabano zixazululwe ngokuthula, futhi inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye ivinjelwe ngokumelene nohulumeni ohlulwayo. Igatsha lokwahlulela lisebenza njengesehlolo olubucayi kwamanye amagatsha ngamandla okuhlola, liqinisekisa ukuthi akukho mthetho noma isenzo somthetho womthetho. Lendima ibaluleke ekulondolozeni ukulinganisela amandla nokulondoloza ukubusa kwentando yentando yentando yeningi.

Isakhiwo Segatsha Lokwahlulela

Isimiso Senkantolo KaFederal

Igatsha lokwahlulela lihlelwe laba izitebhisi ezintathu eziyinhloko ezingaphakathi kwesimiso sikahulumeni: izinkantolo zezifunda, izinkantolo zesifunda zamacala, neNkantolo Ephakeme. Izinga ngalinye linemithwalo yemfanelo ehlukene nemingcele ehlukene.

  • Izinkantolo zezesifunda: Izigodi zombuso 94 (kuhlanganise nezinkantolo zendawo) zakha izinkantolo zezenkantolo zesimiso sikahulumeni. Lezinkantolo zizwa kokubili amacala omphakathi nawobugebengu, zisingatha amacala, futhi zenze izinqumo zokuqala ngemibuzo yeqiniso nomthetho. Abahluleli benkantolo yesifunda yizona zokuqala ukuchaza imithetho kahulumeni nezimiso zomthetho-mthetho ezimpikiswaneni ezithile.
  • Izinkantolo Zokudlulisa Amacala: Kukhona izifunda eziyi 13 (isifunda, esinye sesifunda saseColumbia, neFederal Frank). Lezi zinkantolo zihlola izinqumo ezivela ezinkantolo zesifunda phakathi kwezwe, kodwa azinacala. Kunalokho, amajaji ahlola umbhalo ogciniwe wokuqulwa kwamaphutha angokomthetho, eqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho usetshenziswa ngokulungile. Isinqumo sawo sibeka isimiso esinesibopho phakathi kwesifunda.
  • Inkantolo ePhakeme kakhulu: Inkantolo ephakeme kakhulu eUnited States, eyakhiwa amajaji ayisishiyagalolunye (kuhlanganise noMahluleli oyedwa omkhulu). INkantolo Ephakeme ihlola ngokuqondisisa emacaleni amaningi, ikhetha kuphela lawo akhuluma ngemibuzo engokomthetho-sisekelo, adala izingxabano phakathi kwezifunda, noma ahilela izimpikiswano zokubaluleka kwesizwe. Izinqumo zayo ziwukugcina futhi ayinakudluliswa kunoma iyiphi enye inkantolo.

Izimiso Zenkantolo KaHulumeni

Ngaphezu kwejaji likahulumeni, isifundazwe ngasinye silondoloza isimiso saso senkantolo esizimele. Izinkantolo zikahulumeni zisingatha izimpikiswano eziningi ezingokomthetho e-U.S., kuhlanganise nomthetho womkhaya, izingxabano zempahla, ukumangalelwa kobugebengu ngenxa yokwephulwa komthetho kahulumeni, nokulimala okuningi komuntu siqu. Njengesimiso sikahulumeni, izinkantolo zikahulumeni zibekwa ngokwesiko ezibekwa ezinhlalweni ezintathu: izinkantolo zokuqulwa kwecala (kakhulu noma ezibizwa ngokuthi izinkantolo zesifunda), izinkantolo eziphakathi kwezinkantolo eziphethe, kanye nenkantolo ephakeme yezwe. Inkantolo ephakeme ingumahluleli yokugcina emthetho kahulumeni nemibuzo kahulumeni, nakuba izimpikiswano zomthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-sisekelo zingadluliswa eNkakhulu yase-U.

Ukuhlanganiswa kwezimiso zokwahlulela zikahulumeni nombuso kudala isimo esiyinkimbinkimbi sombuso. Izinkantolo zeFederal zinemingcele elinganiselwe, zizwa kuphela amacala ahilela umthetho kahulumeni, uMthetho-sisekelo, izivumelwano, noma izimpikiswano phakathi kwezakhamuzi zezifunda ezihlukene. Izinkantolo zoMbuso zinegunya elivamile futhi zingalalela cishe noma yiliphi icala ngaphandle kokuba umthetho kahulumeni ulibeke ezinkantolo zikahulumeni kuphela.

Ukulahlwa Nemingcele Yako

Ukuphangwa kokuqala

Ukuqonda igunya lokulawula kusemqoka ekuqondeni indlela igatsha lokwahlulela elisebenza ngayo. ububanzi obungalawuleki bubhekisele egunyeni lenkantolo ukuzwa icala okokuqala. Izinkantolo zesigodi ziyizinkantolo eziyinhloko zegunya lokuqala lesimiso sombuso kahulumeni. Inkantolo ePhakamileyo futhi inegunya lokuqala phezu kwemibango elinganiselwe, enjengezingxabano phakathi kwezimo, kodwa lezi ziyivelakancane. [[[FLT:]] Appelellate i-gamende yecala lisho ukubukeza izinqumo zenkantolo enziwa yinkantolo ephansi. Izinkantolo zesifunda neNkanto ephakeme (ezikhulu) ukuvivinya umbuso.

Indaba Yokusola Nokuma

Ngaphambi kokuba inkantolo kahulumeni izwe icala, kumelwe ibe nesikhundla esiphansi (impikiswano noma izinhlobonhlobo) futhi lenhlangano kumelwe ime idlulise icala. I-statuff ifuna ukuba ummangalelwa athole ukulimala okuqinile okungabhekiswa ekuziphatheni kommangalelwa futhi kungavuselelwa ngesinqumo esihle senkantolo. Lemfundiso ivimbela izinkantolo ekukhipheni imibono noma ekuxazululeni izimpikiswano ezingathi shwá, kugcine ummangalelwa egxile ezicaleni ezingokoqobo nasezimpikiswaneni.

Indima YeNkantolo Ephakeme

Ukubukeza Kokwahlulela

Ithuluzi elinamandla kakhulu leNkantolo Ephakeme ukuhlolwa kokwahlulela, okuwugunya lokumemezela imithetho nezenzo zezikhulu ngokungekho emthethweni. Lombuso wamiswa ecaleni eliyingqophamlando Marbury v. Madison, lapho uMahluleli omkhulu John Marshall agomela khona ukuthi “ngokuyisisekelo isifundazwe nomsebenzi womnyango wokwahlulela ukusho ukuthi umthetho uyini.” Ngokubukeza kokwahlulela, iNkantolo ihlela incazelo yomthetho womthetho futhi iye yabhidliza imithetho eminingi, kusukela ezikoleni ezishini eziye zabekwa imingcele yezezimali. Lokhu kuhlola kubalulekile ekulondolozeni umthetho wezwe njengomthetho ophakeme, kodwa futhi kubeka umthwalo wemfanelo omkhulu enkantolo ukuze kuvinjwe futhi kuvinywe izimiso zomthetho.

Ukukhetha I - Certiorari Ne - case

INkantolo Ephakeme ithola izicelo ezingaphezu kuka 7 000 unyaka ngamunye kodwa izwa amacala acishe abe ngu 80-100 kuphela. Amajaji asebenzisa “isinqumo sika-5” ukunquma ukuthi anganikeza yini imvume ye-certiorari, okusho ukuthi okungenani abahluleli abane kumelwe bavume ukuthi icala liyimvume yokubukezwa. Amacala akhethwa lapho ehilela imibuzo ebalulekile kahulumeni, adale izinkantolo zesifunda, noma inqubo yokuhlola iqinisekisa ukuthi iNkantolo igxile ezindabeni ezinemiphumela engokomthetho.

Ukuqinisekisa Ubuqotho Nobulungisa

Inqubo Yomthetho Efanele

Inqubo efanelekile isiqinisekiso somthetho-sisekelo esisekelwe eSichibiyelweni sesihlanu neseshumi nane. Kudingeka ukuba uhulumeni ahloniphe wonke amalungelo angokomthetho akwelethwa umuntu, kuhlanganise isaziso kanye nokuzwa okunenjongo ngaphambi kokuncisha othile ukuphila, inkululeko, noma impahla. Inqubo inezingxenye ezimbili: [ inqubo efanele[[[FLT:] iprocedroduration [inqubo efunekayo ephazamisayo empikiswaneni kahulumeni eyisisekelo, njengamalungelo obuqu noma umshado, uma kusetshenziswa ngisho nezindlela ezifanelekile). I-jajikidikidia iqinisekisa inqubo efanelekile yokwabelana ofakazi bokuphila ukuphila, nenqubo efanelekile engokwezenzo zohulumeni. [FLT. [ist:] (isivikelo ekungeneni kwemicimbiso engokomthetho eyisisekelo, njengasemgalelo lomthetho, noma umshado, uma kusetshenziswa ngisho nezindlela ezifanelekile ezifanelekile ezifanelekile).

Isivikelo Esilinganayo Nokuphikisana

I-Umeal Protection Clause yeSichibiyelo se 144 iyalela ukunqabela ukunqabela noma ubani “ukuvikelwa okulinganayo kwemithetho.” Igatsha lokwahlulela liqinisekisa lokhu ngokuhlola imithetho ehlukanisa abantu ngokwezinhlanga, ubulili, noma ezinye izigaba ezisolekayo. Izinkantolo zisebenzisa amazinga ahlukene okuhlola izinhlanga, ukucubungula phakathi kwezimiso zobulili, nokuhlola imingcele eminingi yezezomnotho. Izehlolo elilinganayo lemithetho yezezomnotho liye labulala i-liv [[FLT:][FLD]bn v. [2][FFFFFFF]]] [freg] [5], ukukhomba okulinganiselwe kwezenzo ([FLT:]]]]]]][FLT]]]]

Isivikelo Samalungelo Abantu Ngabodwa

Amacala Enkantolo Ephakeme Aphinde Ahanjelwa

Ngalé [[NTLA:0] Brown[, Roe, kanye Mira[[, ezinye izinqumo eziningi ziye zawulolonga kakhulu umthetho nenkululeko ngayinye:

  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): wamisa ilungelo lokunikeza abamangalelwa becala ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, eqinisekisa ukuthi abamangalelwa abamangalelwa abathola ummeli ngisho noma bengakwazi ukukhokhela oyedwa. Lelicala laqinisa isiqinisekiso seSiphendu seSithandathu sokuqulwa ngokulunga.
  • New York Times Co. v. United States (1971): Icala le-“Pretagons percentages” laphinde lafaka isivikelo esinamandla sokuHlaziya kokuqala ekunqandeni kwangaphambi, livumela amaphephandaba ukuba anyathelise amaphepha ahlelwe ngokwezibaya ngeMpi yaseVietnam ngaphandle kokuba ukwenza kanjalo kungabangela ukuqondisa, ukulimala okushesha ekulondekeni kwesizwe.
  • ICITIZENS United v. Federal Evont Commission (2010): yavuma ukuthi ukuxhasa kwezezimali kwezebhizinisi kwezindaba ezizimele zezombangazwe akunakulinganiselwa ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo Sokuqala. Lesisinqumo sisalokhu siphikisana, njengoba sandisa amalungelo okukhuluma akhululekile ezindaweni ezizimele futhi sandisa umthetho wezezimali oshintshiwezishintshile.
  • I-Driority of Columbia v. Heller (2008): Yaqaphela ilungelo lomuntu ngalinye lokuzigcina nokuphatha izikhali ukuze athole izibhamu, ukuqeda ukuvinjelwa kwemibhamu eWashington, D.C. nokumisa isisekelo seSikhawu seSibekisi jurisprudence.

Lezi zimo zibonisa indlela abahluleli abawachaza ngayo ngenkuthalo amalungelo omthetho - sisekelo ngenxa yezinguquko zezenhlalo nezinselele zomthetho, ngokuvamile okubangela impikiswano yesizwe nokumiswa kwemithetho.

Amalungelo Okwahlulela Okumangalelwa Nokungemthetho Ayashintsha

Igatsha lokwahlulela livikela futhi amalungelo abantu abamangalelwa ngobugebengu. Ngokwesine, ngeSihlanu, ngesi-6th, nangesi-8h Isichibiyelo, izinkantolo zilawula ukuphenywa kwamaphoyisa, ukuphenywa, nezijeziso. Ngokwesibonelo, ukukhishwa komthetho kuvimbela ubufakazi obutholakalayo besephulweni leSichibiyelo sesine ekuqulweni. Izinqumo zamuva zeNkantolo Ephakeme ngebheyili ephakeme, isijeziso esinonya nengavamile, nokungalingani komthetho wobugebengu kuyaqhubeka kulungisa. Indima kahulumeni ukuqinisekisa ukuthi amandla kahulumeni okugweba awenzi ukukhululeka okungagweba.

Ukubaluleka Kokuzimela Ekwahluleleni

Okwenza Kube Nendaba Ukuzibusa

Ukuzimela kokwahlulela kubaluleke kakhulu ukuze kube nentando yeningi esebenzayo. Uma amajaji enganquma amacala ngaphandle kokwesaba ukuphindisela kwezombangazwe, ukuphindisela, noma ukucindezela okuthandwayo, angasekela umthetho ngisho nalapho izinqumo zingathandeki. Lokhu kukhishwa kwezombangazwe ezihlukene kuvumela abahluleli ukuba bavikele amalungelo amancane, baphoqelele umthetho ngokumelene neningi ukuba ulwele, futhi basebenze njengomphikisi ongathathi hlangothi ezimpikiswaneni phakathi kwamagatsha kahulumeni. Ngaphandle kokuzibusa kokwahlulela, ukuhlukana kwemibuso, futhi umthetho uba yithuluzi lalabo abaphethe.

Izivikelo Zezinhlangano Zokuzibusa

  • Ukuphila ku-Federal Abhrist: Ngaphansi kweSiphakamiso III soMthetho-sisekelo, abahluleli bakahulumeni babamba amahhovisi abo phakathi “nokuziphatha okuhle,” ngokuphumelelayo ukukhonza ukuphila. Lokhu kususa usongo lokususwa kwemithetho engathandeki namakhasi abahluleli ezingcindezi zezombangazwe zesikhashana.
  • Isivikelo sokunqanda ukudayiswa kwemali: UMthetho-sisekelo futhi unqabela ukuncishiswa kwenkokhelo yamajaji kahulumeni, uqinisekisa ukuthi uKhongolo-mthetho ngeke ujezise abahluleli ngokwezimali ngenxa yezinqumo zabo.
  • Ukususa okungaqondakali nge-Impecation: amajaji aMazwe angasuswa ngokungagunyazi nokuqiniseka kuKhongolo-kanye “ngobugebengu obukhulu nangabenzi bomthetho abangafanele.” Lesisiqobo sivimbela imizamo yokususa okungathí sina futhi siqinisa ukuzinza kwejaji.
  • I-Equality-Governance ne-Administrative Independence: Ingqungquthela yokwahlulela yase-United States, emiswe uMahluleli Omkhulu, yengamela ukuphatha kwezinkantolo zikahulumeni. Lokhu kuvumela ijaji ukuba lilawule imisebenzi yalo, kuhlanganise nezicelo zemali, imithetho yezimiso, nezabelo, ngaphandle kokuphazamisa okungadingekile emagatsheni ephethe noma emithetho.

Izinselele Zokuzimela Ekwahluleleni Inkululeko

Naphezu kwalezi sivikelo, ukuzimela kokwahlulela kubhekene nezinselele zamanje. Ukuzimela okuqhubekayo okuncishiswayo, ukuhlaselwa komphakathi ngabahluleli abezombangazwe, nezinsongo zokuxhasa noma ukubusa kungalulaza ukwethenjwa komphakathi nokungakhethi kokwahlulela. Ukunyuka ko “kuhlongozwa kwezincwadi” kwezinye izizwe nasesilinganisweni sikahulumeni kusongela ukungathathi hlangothi kwezinkantolo. Ukulondoloza imvume ezimele kudinga isibopho esiqhubekayo kuzo zonke izigatsha nasezakhamuzini ezazisa umthetho. Ulwazi oluthe xangakho kumthetho ngokwawo

Igatsha Lokwahlulela Nezinhloli Nokulinganisela

Ama - expoir

Ijaji lingashaya iziyalo zezikhulu noma izenzo ezidlula igunya lomongameli noma ukuphula amalungelo omthetho-sisekelo. Ngokwesibonelo, Intsha eshaye i-Stown Sheep & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952), iNkantolo Ephakeme yenza uMongameli Truman angabi namandla asemthethweni phakathi neMpi yase-Korea njengeqhawe likahulumeni wegunya. Muva nje, izinkantolo ziye zabukeza ukuvinjelwa kokuthutha, izimiso zokuthutha abantu, nezimiso zokhuseleko, ngokuvamile zivimbela ukulawulwa kwezimiso lapho ziphikisana nemithetho noma isivikelo somthetho.

Ukuhlola EMthethweni

Ngokuhlolwa kokwahlulela, izinkantolo zingachitha imithetho yokuhlanganisa ephikisana noMthetho-sisekelo. Lokhu kuhlanganisa imithetho ephula inkululeko yeSichibiyelo Sokuqala, edlula amagunya adwetshiwe oMkhandlu ngaphansi kwe-Communist Clause, noma ephula izimiso zikahulumeni. Nokho, ijaji futhi liyazivimbela, ngokuvamile libhekisela eMkhandlwini ngaphansi kwezimfundiso njengesisekelo esinengqondo sokubukezwa kwemithetho yezomnotho. ISishaya-Mnyango, singasabela ezinqumweni zokwahlulela ngokulandela imithetho ehleliwe, sifaka umthetho wemithetho esemthethweni enqanda ukunqanda ukunqanda, noma sishintshe imingcele yezinkantolo zezwe (ngemikhawulo yomthetho wezwe).

Amasheke Esibhakabhakeni

Amanye amagatsha ahlola futhi igatsha lokwahlulela. UMongameli umisa amajaji angokomthetho (enokweqiniswa kweSigele), futhi uMkhandlu ungakhipha amajaji. UKhongolo lulawula uhlelo lwemali lwejaji, lunqume isakhiwo sezinkantolo eziphansi, futhi lungakhipha imithetho emisha yokugumbuqela izincazelo zemithetho zezinkantolo (nakuba kungezona izimemezelo ezingokomthetho). Ngaphezu kwalokho, uMongameli angathethelela abantu ababoshelwe ezinkantolo zikahulumeni, ngokungaqondile okuthinta amandla okwahlulela.

Izinkinga Nezimpikiswano Zesikhathi Esizayo

Ukuthatha Icala Ngokwahlulela Kumelene Nemingcele

Impikiswano engapheli igxile ekutheni amajaji kufanele awuchaze ngenkuthalo yini uMthetho-sisekelo ukuze axazulule izinkinga zanamuhla (isenzo somthetho) noma anamathele ngokuqinile encazelweni yokuqala noma embhalweni (ukuzibamba komthetho). Abagxeki bezenzo zokuzimela baphikisa ngokuthi abahluleli badlula indima yabo efanele ngokwenza imithetho; abasekeli bathi uMthetho - sisekelo ophilayo udingekile ukuze uvikele amalungelo asuswe. Lokhu kucindezeleka kubonakala ezinqumweni eziphathelene nokukhishwa kwesisu, amalungelo ezibhamu, nokunakekelwa kwempilo.

Ukuhlukahluka Kwezindawo Ezinsundu

Ukwakheka kwejaji kuye kwaba yindaba yomphakathi ephawulekayo. Ngokomlando, amajaji ombuso ayenabantu abamhlophe nabesilisa kakhulu. Amashumi eminyaka amuva aye abona ukuhlukahlukahluka okukhulu ngokumiswa kwabesifazane, abantu abamibala, nabantu abavela ezizindeni ezihlukahlukene zobuchwepheshe. Ukuhlola kusikisela ukuthi amabhentshi ahlukene aletha imibono ehlukene futhi athuthukisa ukwethemba komphakathi.

Ubuchwepheshe Nezinkantolo

Ubuchwepheshe bubuye bushintshe indlela izinkantolo ezisebenza ngayo. I-electronic sesclect, i-confensing ye-tem (ivumelelwe umqedazwe we-COVOVAD-19), kanye namathuluzi okuzenzela okucwaninga okusemthethweni ayanda. Nokho, kuphakama imibuzo ngokufinyelela kwemisebe ye-amanani, i-computersecurency, nokusetshenziswa kwemithetho ekugwebeni nasekunqumeni izinqumo ze-pager. I-judiary kumelwe ilinganisele nenqubo efanele nokufinyelela. [

Isiphetho

Igatsha lokwahlulela aliyona nje isimiso senkantolo — liyikhokela ukulawulwa kwentando yeningi ngokwayo. Ngokuchaza imithetho yentando yeningi, ukuvikela amalungelo abantu ngabanye, nokuhlola amandla amanye amagatsha, kuqinisekisa ukuthi ukwahlulela kuhlala kuphakeme futhi ukubusa komthetho kuhlale kuphakeme. Ukuqonda isakhiwo sakho, ukubusa, nezimiso zokuzibusa kubalulekile kunoma isiphi isakhamuzi esifisa ukuqonda ukuthi uhulumeni waseMelika uyakwazi kanjani ukulinganisela amandla nokuvikela inkululeko. Njengoba kuphakama izinselele ezintsha — kusukela ekushintsheni kwezobuchwepheshe kuya ekushintsheni kwezombangazwe — isibopho se-jadicariary sokungakhethi, sokungakhethi, nokungena bulungisa obungenayo kuqhubeke nokuchaza indima yaso ekusekeleni umthetho. Amacala abefundisi nabafundi, ukuhlola imicimbi engokombuso, ukuvikela, nokubaluleka kwesimiso esizimele se-judicatary (iadia) eMelika inikeza ukuqonda okujulileyo yendlela esebenzela ngayo izindaba zezomthetho. [FPrence] [3] ezinstlect: [F]] enkabeni: [3]