Ilungelo lokuvikela ngokulinganayo ngaphansi komthetho lifana nenye yezimiso ezinamandla kakhulu neziphikiswana kakhulu kumthetho womthetho-sisekelo waseMelika. ISichibiyelo se 14neth, lesi siqinisekiso sidinga ukuba abantu ngokufanayo abahlala ezindaweni ezifanayo baphathwe ngokufanayo abadlali bakahulumeni, bangabi naso ukulunga okuqinile kokuphathwa ngendlela ehlukile. Phakathi neminyaka engu-150 edlule, iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-U.S. iye yachaza i-Olincilethi Ephakathi Yokuvikela u-Clauslee ngendlela eye yavumela ukucwasana noshintsho lwezenhlalo. Ukuqonda izenzakalo eziyinhloko eziye zakhanyisa le mfundiso kudinga ukuqonda indlela umthetho waseMelika ochaza ngayo ukulunga, inkululeko, nobulungisa.

Ukuhlola isivikelo esilinganayo namuhla kuxhomeke esimisweni esinemigqa esihlolwayo sokuhlola − isigaba, isigaba, isisekelo esiphakathi, nesisekelo esinengqondo − ngasinye sisetshenziswa kuye ngokwendlela ehlelwe ngayo enqulwini (uhlanga, ubulili, noma indlela ejwayelekile yokulawula kwezomnotho). Lezizindinganiso azizange zakhiwa ngokugcwele; zazikhona ngezikhathi ezithile, ezimpini ezinzima ezibonisa ukususwa kwezwe ngokokuziphatha, ukuphakama kwezwe, nokulawula kwezombangazwe. Lesihloko sihlola izimo zesisekelo ezasungulwa, zanwetshwa futhi zacwenga ilungelo ukuze zilingane, kuyilapho ziqhubeka zihlola izinselele zamanje eziqhubeka zizama ukufinyelela kwalo.

ISichibiyelo Seshumi Nane Nokuvela Kwemfundiso Yokuvikelwa Okulinganayo

I-Umeal Protection Claus, eyamukelwa ngo-1868 njengengxenye yeSichibiyelo seshumi nane, iyanikeza: “Awukho uHulumeni oyophika kunoma yimuphi umuntu ongaphakathi kwegunya lakhe isivikelo esifanayo semithetho.” Ekuqaleni yayiklanyelwe ukuvikela amalungelo abantu baseAfrika abasanda kukhululwa, izinombolo zabekwa zingaphumi ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinesine leminyaka. Ukuchazwa okuncane kweNkantolo yeNkantolo phakathi nenkathi yeNkathi ye-Dialo-14, okudume kakhulu kuyaziwa kakhulu ukuthi i- ukuchasha iCase-Ndromes [ (1873]) [18] kanye] kanye ne[FLT] United States. Crushmann[FLD [FF] [5] [6] [ignome] [iglov] ku-dentialtivey]

Umongo Wokwakha kabusha

ISichibiyelo seshumi nane leminyaka sasiyisikhungo sohlelo lweRepublican Reconstructon. Sandford . sinqumo sangonyaka ka-1866, esasiqinisekisa ilungelo lokuba nesizwe kanye namalungelo alinganayo kubo bonke abantu abazalwe e-United States. Abafemu, ababeholwa nguMmeli uJohn Bingham noSaint Jacob Howard, babefuna ukumisa indinganiso yesizwe ye-aturence ye-pren (57) nokunquma kwe-prenCivil Act, echaza amalungelo ezakhamuzi zabo. Kodwa iNkantolo Ephakeme yaze yabhuntsha ngokushesha ithembise ukuthi isithembiso asizange sidlulise ukucwa kwenkululeko futhi sifuze amalungelo amakhulu ngaphansi kwezwe kakhulu.

“ Awukho uMbuso... ozophika noma yimuphi umuntu ongaphansi kwegunya lakhe ukuvikelwa okufanayo kwemithetho.” — U-U.S. Const. amend. XIV, NZA 1.

Emashumini eminyaka, i - Aumelt Protection Claus yayisetshenziswa ngokuyinhloko yizinhlangano ezithi imithetho kahulumeni yayiziphuca ukuphathwa ngokulinganayo (hhayi - system system) okuhluke kakhulu enjongweni yasekuqaleni yalesi sigaba. INkantolo yaqala ukuphefumula ukuphila phakathi nekhulu lama - 88502 njengethuluzi lokwahlulela kohlanga, futhi kusukela lapho yandisa isivikelo sayo kwamanye amaqembu ahlukene ngokomlando.

Ukuqala Kwezindinganiso Zokuhlola Zanamuhla

Isivikelo esilinganayo sanamuhla sihlelwa ngokulandelana kwezinga lobucukubhede bokwahlulela. Ukuhlola okuqinile, okunendinganiso enzima kakhulu, kusebenza ekuhlelekeni okusekelwe ngokohlanga, imvelaphi yobuzwe, kanye nokungahlanga; imithetho enjalo igcinwa kuphela uma ikhonza isithakazelo sikahulumeni esiphoqelelwe futhi ilungiswa ngokulinganiselwe. Ukuhlola kusebenza ekuhlukaniseni okusekelweni kwezesilisa nakwezesifazane, okufuna ukuba kube nobuhlobo obubalulekile kuhulumeni kuleyonjongo. Isisekelo se-alnamential, sisebenza kuzo zonke ezinye izigaba zomthetho ngaphandle kokuba ungenakho ubuhlobo obunengqondo esimweni esingokomthetho. Loluhlelo lwavela endimeni elandelanayo eyacweni lwezeluleksici semfundiso kuleyo yekhulu lama-20.

Izimpawu Zezwe Zivimbela Isivikelo Esilinganayo

Izigcawu ezilandelayo zimelela amaphuzu ashintshayo ekuchazeni nasekusebenziseni i - Exple Protection Claus. ngasinye saxoxa umbuzo oyisisekelo ngokuthi ubani ongowakwakhe, yini edingekayo, nokuthi umbuso ungawuhlukanisa kangakanani abantu.

UPassy v. Ferguson (1896): Imfundiso ethi “Isifunda Kodwa Iyalingana”

Plesty v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), iNkantolo ePhakamileyo yasekela umthetho weLouisiana ofuna ukuhlukaniswa kwezinhlanga ezimotweni zesitimela. Homer Plessy, indoda yohlanga lwaseAfrika olungu-1. Yabekela umthetho inselele njengokwephula umthetho iSivikeli sika Claus, kodwa iNkantolo yalahla impikiswano yakhe ngevoti engu-7761. UMahluleli wezwe uHen Brow wacabanga ukuthi i-Hubn ayizange ibonise ukuncipha kwanoma yimuphi umjaholi, isikhathi eside izakhiwo zilingana. Isinqumo somthetho “silingana kodwa” futhi salungiselela isembobo esingokomthetho sikaJim Crow phakathi kwemithetho engamashumi angamashumi ayisithupha. Ubulungisa uJohn Harlan uHarlans, kodwa umessard Sh, umest Crist, futhi wazi ukuthi izakhamuzi ezisebuthene."

iwuphawu oluyisixwayiso sendlela isivikelo esilinganayo sika Claus esingasontwa ngayo ukuze siqhubekisele phambili ukungalingani. Ukwenqaba kweNkantolo ukubheka ngalé kokulingana okungokomthetho, iveza isihlamba sezwe esingokoqobo se-panerand nehholo elincitshiwe ngokwezinto ezibonakalayo eliye laboniswa ```Inqumo edinga ukungathathi hlangothi kombuso kuphela ebusweni bayo. Isinqumo sasingabekwanga ngokuphelele phezu kwemithetho kuze kube [Brown v. Ibhodi yezemfundo[FLD:3] [1954]]

Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Ukufa “Kwesipheku Kodwa Okulinganayo”

Brown v. ibhodi yezemfundo yaseTopeka, 347 U.S. 483 (154), iyisinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme yekhulu lama-20. Kuwo wonke owabhalwa yiNkantolo yeSikhulu u-Earl Warren, iNkantolo yathi ukuhlukanisa izinhlanga ezikoleni zomphakathi kwaphula iSivikeli sika-Clausle. INkanto yathola ukuthi “izakhiwo zemfundo ezingaphezulu azilingani,” ukwenqaba umqulu . Isinqumo saveza ubufakazi obungokwengqondo nesezesayensi edumile “izifundo ze-Creadern" kanye ne-Mamiclasckiento eveza ukuthi imizwa encikekayo yezingane zaseMelika eMelika engenakulinganiswa yingcebo.

“ Iziko lemfundo azilingani ngokwemvelo.” — Ijaji eliyinhloko i-Earl Warren, Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Brown ayiphelanga ngokushesha ukuhlukanisa; kwathatha esinye isinqumo (njenge i-Brown II[ kanye ] Copern v.Aaron]) kanye nokungenela kwezwe ukuphoqelela ukuhlukanisa. Kodwa isinqumo sashintsha incazelo yesivikelo ngokugcizelela ukuthi isilinganiso kumelwe silinganiswe ngokwemiphumela yangempela nangencazelo yezenhlalo, hhayi nje ubuso bomthetho. BB] futhi sabeka isisekelo senhlangano ebanzi, ukuncintisana kweminye yezindawo zonke.

ULong Virginia (1967): Ukuqeda Imingcele Yohlanga Ukuze Ushade

Ku- i- Virginia, 388 U.S. 1.67, iNkantolo Ephakeme yalulaza umthetho we-Virginia olwa no-62scegation, lowo mthetho owenziwe ngobugebengu, iNkantolo yasebenzisa ukuhlolwa okuqinile kohlanga olusekelwe ngokwezinga eliphansi futhi yathola ukuthi umthetho awufezanga njongo engokomthetho ngaphandle kokugcina ukuphakama okumhlophe. IJaji elikhulu uWarren, ukubhalela iNkadende, futhi wasekela ukuthi “inkululeko yokushada, noma ukungashadi, umuntu wolunye uhlanga uhlala nomuntu futhi akanakuphindwa iZwe. [[FLT]] uthola ukuthi umthetho awufezanga njongo esemthethweni ngaphandle kokugcina isivikelo esilinganayo ebuhlotsheni obuhlangene nohlanga, futhi ubuye uphinde uqinisekise ukuthi “inkululeko yokuhlangana nabantu abaningi.

Reed v. Reed (1971): Ukulingana okungalingani

Kuwo wonke umlando waseMelika, iNkantolo Ephakeme yenqaba ukusebenzisa ukucubungula kakhulu ukuhlelwa kwezindawo ezisekelwe ebulilini, ngokuvamile ezibhekisela ezindima ezingokwesiko zobulili. Okwashintsha -Reed v. Reed[[FL:1], 404] U.S. 711971, lapho iNkantolo yashaya umthetho we-Idaho ngokuvumelanayo onikeza amadoda uthando oluzenzekelayo phezu kwabaphathi bezindawo. Nakuba umbono ungashongoluhlolo olungokomthetho, kwakuyisikhathi sokuqala iNkade inkantolo yalulaza umthetho wesisekelo socalulo lwezocalulo ngaphansi kwe-Clast Claus. [FLT:] Eminyakeni emibili kamuva, [FLT] Fronsieson.[FFF3] [3] [9] [4]

United States v. Virginia (1996): Isivikelo Esilinganayo Ne - Gender Integration in Education

ku-United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 596), iNkantolo Ephakeme yakhuluma ngesimiso sokuvuma sabesilisa kuphela seNhlangano YezeMpi Yomkhosi yaseVirginia (VMI). Umbuso waphikisa ngokuthi imfundo eyodwa yezentengiselwano yayivunyelwe, kodwa iNkantolo, eMthethweni kaJahebe, ngombono kaJaji Ruth Bader Ginsburg, yakholelwa ukuthi lenkambiso iphule i-Clausse . Iveza indinganiso ephakathi, iNkampele yathola ukuthi iVirginia yehlulekile ukunikeza “ukuthethelela okungakholisayo okungakholekiyo ngenxa yokususa abesifazane. Isinqumo esiphoqeqeshiwe VMI ukuba ivume futhi igcizelele isimiso sokuthi isigaba sobulilidiosekumele ifeza izinjongo ezibalulekile kuhulumeni futhi iqondene kakhulu kulezo zemithetho ewumthetho.

IWashington v. Davis (19976): ISimfuneko Esingenamcimbi

Akuzona zonke izigaba eziveza imiphumela yokungaguquki komthetho. Ku-Shahington v. Davis, 426 U.S.29 .196, iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuthi umthetho noma umthetho obekelwe inselele ngaphansi kweSivikelo sika-Clauslease kumelwe uboniswe ukuthi unendawo ebanzi yokulawula injongo[ []] [awuwona nje igalelo elibhalwe phansi. Icala lihilela ukuvivinywa kwamaphoyisa ukuthi ama-Americs aseMelika ahlulekayo ngezinga eliphezulu kuneze liphumele izikhangiso ezimhlophe. Inkantolo yalahla imingcele ehlukene yemithetho engokomthetho, igcina ukuthi isilinganiso esivamile sesihloko se-Octaltivet. [4] I-Foctivesvoms.[4] Umthetho oqinile ohlukene wokwahlukanisa umthetho oqinileyo.[4]

UGrutter v. Bollinger (2003): Isinyathelo Esiqinisayo Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

Umbuzo wokuthi izinhlelo zokuvuma ziyayiphazamisa yini i-University Protection Claus efinyelele eNkantolo Ephakeme ngokuphikisana. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003). INkantolo yasekela iYunivesithi yeSikole soMthetho i-University, ebheka uhlanga njengengxenye eyodwa ukuze kufinyelele indikimba yabafundi ehlukene. Isinqumo esithathwayo njengesengxenyeni eyodwa. I-omqoka, i-Sandra Day O’Connor sasebenzisa inding kodwa manje siphetha ngokuthi isithakazelo sesikole semfundo esabalelekile futhi isimiso sasingasasebenzi kahle ngoba sasivumelana, sihlelwe ngokwezimo ezinhlalweni zobuhlanga. [FF] [3] [3]

Ukwandisa Isilinganiso Sesivikelo Esilinganayo: Ubulili, Ubulili, Nangalé Kwaso

Kusukela ngawo - 1970 kuqhubeke, ukubekwa kwesivikelo esifanayo kwagxila kakhulu ekuhlukaniseni ezinye izinhlanga. iNkantolo yaqala ukuhlola okuphakathi kokuthi ubulili bungabuphi, futhi muva nje, yakusebenzisa ekubukeni ubulili nokukhubazeka.

Ukucwaswa Ngemva Kokuqala Komshoshaphansi

[[FLT:] Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S.19976, iNkantolo yawisa umthetho we-Oklahoma obeka iminyaka ehlukene yokuphuza yamadoda nabesifazane (21 kwabesilisa, 18 kwabesifazane]. Umbono wobuningi osungulwe ukucusumbulwa okuphakathi kwezimiso zobufana: umthetho kumelwe usebenze “injongo zikahulumeni” futhi ube“ ohlobene kakhulu nokufezwa kwalezozinjongo.” Lendinganiso iye yasetshenziswa emaphutheni asukela [[FLT:] kuwe] eUnited States v. [[FLT] [FLT]] [3] [196]) [196] kubaphathi bezenziswa izinkonzo. Moralsplan [5] [5] [5] [2010], imithetho ehleliwe kubazali esemthethweni ngenxa yeNkadelwe ukuphatha kwamadoda.[FLT]

LGBTQ+ Amalungelo Nesivikelo Esilinganayo

Ukusetshenziswa kweNkantolo Ephakeme kokuvikela isilinganiso esifanayo sezinsuku zokubonisana ngokobulili Romer v. Evans (1996], eyabulala imithetho yeColorado elawulayo evikela ungqingili nongqingili ekukhetheni. Nakuba iNkantolo yasebenzisa isisekelo esinengqondo sokubukeza, yathola ukuthi ukulungisa akunayo enye injongo engokomthetho kune-aimus. Lawrence v. Texas[FLT][2003] [2003], iNkanto encishisiwe imithetho ngaphansi kwe-Creast Creastem, kodwa ifaka isivikelo esifanayo nemithetho engcono engcono ngaphansi kwe-Mongo-olskalcerce. I-Umthetho obalulekile u-Octive.[FT][5] [i-20]

Muva nje, kubock v. Clayton County [20], iNkantolo ichaza isihloko VII se-Civil Rights Act ukuthi inqabela ukucwaswa okusekelwe ekubukekeni kobulili noma ebulilini; nakuba icala laliyi-station, ukucabanga kwagcizelela isimiso sokuthi izimpawu ezisekelwe ekuqondeni kobulili nangokobulili zisolwa futhi zidinga ukuthethelelwa okuqinile. Izinselele zesivikelo ezilinganayo ziyaqhubeka ezindaweni ezinjengokungena ezindaweni zokugeza, ukuthatha isinyathelo kwezemidlalo, nezindawo zomphakathi zokuhlala.

Amalungelo Okuwohloka: I - ADA Nangaphezulu

Izinkantolo zivame ukugomela ukuthi ukuhlelwa kokukhubazeka kudinga isisekelo esinengqondo kuphela sokubukeza, hhayi ukucubungula. Kuyi-Dolobha laseCleburne v. Cleburne Living Center (1985), iNkantolo Ephakeme yalahla umthetho owenzelwe imvume ekhethekile yekhaya labantu abakhubazekile, kodwa iNkantolo yenza kanjalo ngaphansi kwesisekelo esinengqondo, ithole ukuthi umthetho wawusekelwe ekucwaseni okungenangqondo. Lokhu kwabonisa ukuthi ngaphandle kokuhlola okwengeziwe, i-Clauslette Protection inganikeza ikhambiso uma ivela ku-aus okanye i-odrogist. Izivumelwano eziphambili zokukhubazeka ezisemphiwe nge-Act (1990), ezisekela izibophono eziboshelwa abaqashi, izikhululisa izibopho zomphakathi. [njengo-Calctives][5]

Izinselele Zangesikhathi Esidlule Nemibuzo Engaxazululwanga

Naphezu kwendikimba eqinile yomthetho ovikelayo olinganayo, izimpikiswano eziningi zisaphikiswa. Isinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme [2023] sesinqumo [ku- sama-Fair Adgicts v. Harvard ngokuphumelelayo yaphela umjaho wokungaboni nyathelo lemfundo ephakeme, iphethe ukuthi izinhlelo ezinjalo ziphula iSivikeli esiKhuthayo sika-Claus. Lesinqumo sibonakalisa ukubuyela esiqondisweni esingokomthetho, i-bala ngqayintele yesivikelo esifanayo, esifana nesizathu esithuthukiswe nguMahluleli uThoma. Okwamanje, izinkantolo eziphansi ziphikisana nemibuzo yokucwasana, ukucwa kwezindlu, ukucwa kwezindawo nendawo ezungezile, okuphakamisa izimpikiswano eziyinkimbinkimbi zenjongo yokuhlukanisa, ukuhlukanisa i-discrimen, ukuhlukanisa, ukuhlanganisa, ukuvola inqubo yenhlangano yenhlangano.

Ukungalingani Kwezimiso Nemfundiso Yesivikelo Elinganayo

Enye yezingxabano ezijule kakhulu emthethweni wesivikelo esilinganayo ukungafani phakathi kwemfuneko yenhloso emiswe ku- Shashington v. Davis kanye nobungako besimiso sobuhlanga. Ukungalingani okuningi emfundweni, impilo, nobulungisa obuyicala kungumphumela wobandlululo olungokomlando olungenakuchazwa ngenhloso eyodwa. Abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi indinganiso esekelwe kumthetho “isiphelo esiwumthetho-akho ngokomthetho” sokuthintana nokungalingani kwanamuhla. Ezinye izazi nabasekeli babiza ukusetshenziswa okuqinile kakhulu kwe-Celaus qhinga lesivikelo esivamile ukufuna ukuba kufune amazwe afuna ukulahla ukucwasana okukhona, kodwa iNkanto yamanje ayibonisi neze isifiso sokwanda okunjalo.

Ukungezwani Nezizathu Eziningi Zokubandlululwa

Abantu abacwaswa ngesisekelo sesici esingaphezulu kwesodwa esivikelweyo − ngokwesibonelo, uhlanga, ubulili, noma ukukhubazeka kanye nokukhubazeka ngokobulili − ngokuvamile badlula emifantwini engokomthetho ekhona. INkantolo Ephakeme ayizange ichaze ngokucacile ukuthi ukuhlaziya isivikelo okulinganayo kufanele kuthinte kanjani ekutheni izivumelwano zikhona. Ezinye izinkantolo eziphansi ziye zaqaphela ukuthi ukucwaswa kweqembu elincane (isibonelo, abesifazane baseAfrika) kungumonakalo ohlukile nongavikelekiyo, kodwa umthetho uhlala ungaqinile. Njengoba izinhlangano zezenhlalo ziqokomisa kakhulu okuhlangenwe nakho kokuhlukanisa, izinkantolo ziyocindezelwa ukuba zithuthukise amathuluzi okuhlaziya izigaba.

Bheka Phambili: Ikusasa Lesivikelo Esilinganayo

Ilungelo lokuvikela okufanayo alikho ngokomthetho. Isizukulwane ngasinye sinethuba − kanye nomthwalo [“ukuchaza incazelo yaso ngokucabangela izimo zezenhlalo ezivelayo nokuqonda okuhle. Izandulela okuxoxwe ngazo kulesi sihloko zembula icebo lokuzibandakanya, kodwa futhi nendlela yokubuyela emuva nokumelana. Isithembiso seSichibiyelo se 144th asikapheli.

Ukubekwa kwecala ngamalungelo okuvota, ukukhokha, ukulandisa kwamaphoyisa, namalungelo okudlulisa igesi kuzoqhubeka kuhlola imingcele yemfundiso elinganayo yokuvikela. Izici zangaphandle − njengezinguquko ekuhlelweni kweNkantolo Ephakeme, ukuthatha izivumelwano zamalungelo abantu, nombono womphakathi − kuyokwenza ukuba isigqebhezana sibe yithuluzi elinamandla kakhulu lokulingana noma ukuhlehlela emacaleni. Noma yini eyenzeka esikhathini esizayo, amacala ahlolwe lapha anikeze amagama nezimiso zesisekelo sezingxoxo ezizayo.