Isifungo sobumongameli singaphezu nje kokuba isikhulu senkonzo esinemikhosi. Kuyisikhathi esisodwa, esihloniphekile lapho umphathi omkhulu ozayo ezibopha ngokusemthethweni eMthethweni, ephawula ukudluliselwa ngokuthula kwamandla asekela umbuso weningi waseMelika. Kodwa ngaphansi kwenkambo kusekelwe impikiswano ejulile engokomthetho nengokomthetho. Kusukela ekutheni isifungo sishiwo ngokunembile ngemiphumela yokungaqondi kahle, lezimpikiswano zithinta imibuzo eyisisekelo ngegunya lobumongameli, ukuthembeka komthetho wemithetho ye-gamente, kanye nesimo somthetho. Lesi sihloko sihlola impikiswano eyinhloko nengokomthetho ehlobene nesifungo sobumongameli, silandelela izinselele eziphawulekayo, futhi sihlola ukubaluleka kwayo okuhlala njalo ekulawuleni kwe-Melika.

Imisuka Engokomlando YeSigodlo Somongameli

Abakhi boMthetho-sisekelo abazange bahlanganise isifungo sobumongameli njengendlela yokucabanga yangemva. Ukusifaka u-Article II, i-Cape 1, Clause 8, basekela ngamabomu isifungo njengemfuneko yomthetho-sisekelo kunenkambiso nje. Amagama okuqala aso afana nomongameli. ngifunga kakhulu (noma ngiqinisekisa) ukuthi ngiyolisebenzisa ngokwethembeka iHhovisi likaMongameli wase-United States, futhi ngiyoyifeza ngokungcono kakhulu i-Qonda, bavikele, futhi bavikele uMthetho-sisekelo we-United States"[FLT] [[FLT]] [i] uhlongo-osenziswayo. Izicelo zenqaba ukumiswa kwemibuningi, njengezifungo zaphezulu, ngenxa yesibopho, ngenxa yesibopho sombuso wezwe, i-Genegalelo-stalmstiki eziqondiswe kuhulumeni. [igcinyo olusekelwe kuhulumeni] [ilome] [ilo liveza imvume].

ISichibiyelo sama-20, esagunyazwa ngo-1933, sasusa usuku lokunikezelwa kwesivumelwano kusukela ngoMatshi 4 kuya ku-Januwari 20, kodwa salondoloza umbhalo wesifungo ongashintshi. Imiphumela yesifungo yayingumthetho, hhayi umthumeli: yacacisa ukuthi isifungo kumelwe sithathwe ngosuku olusha, kodwa asizange sishintshe amagama ngokwawo. Nokho, ukulungisa kwanika uMkhandlu amandla okumisa ukulandelana komongameli uma umongameli efa noma ehluleka ukufeza, okungaqondile ukuthi yikuphi okuthiwa "ukwenziwa" kwesithembiso" ngaphansi kwesifungo.

Ngokuthakazelisayo, izimpikiswano zabahleli zembula ukuthi babheka isifungo njengethuluzi elingokomthetho, hhayi isifungo esingokwenkolo. Ukukhetha "ukuqinisa" kunokuthi "ingubo" kwahlalisa amaQuaker nabanye ababenqaba ukufunga ezisekelweni zenkolo. Lokhu kukhethwe ngabongameli abambalwa, kuhlanganise noFranklin Pierce noHerbert Hoover, abakhetha ukusekela. Kamuva iNkantolo Ephakeme yasekela ukuvumelana komthetho-mthetho wezivumelwano kwezinye izimo, iqinisekisa isimiso sokuthi lesifungo siyisenzo somphakathi.

Ukuhlukahluka Kwemibhalo Nempikiswano "Yokwethembeka"

Enye yezimpikiswano eziphikelelayo ezingokomthetho ikhathalela ukuthi umongameli kumelwe asho isifungo ngezwi elingunyaka. UMthetho-sisekelo awusichazi isijeziso sokushintsha okuncane, futhi umlando ubonisa ukuthi ukuphambuka kuye kwenzeka ngokuphindwe ngokumangalisayo. Ngokwesibonelo, uFranklin D. Roosevelt, phakathi nokunikezelwa kwakhe kwesithathu ngo-1941, wawasebenzisa kabi amazwi athi "winda, vikela futhi uvikele" njengoba "gcina, uvikele," khona - ke wazilungisa. Leso senzakalo sadlula ngaphandle kwenseleleko eqinile yomthetho. Ngokufanayo, uMongameli Obama ngo-2009 wakhubeka ngesiphiko phakathi nomkhosi weSikhulu sikaMahluleli Roberts, okwaholela ekubeni kuthathwe ngokungavamile ngokomthetho ngosuku olulandelayo. Nakuba ukuphindaphinda kwesibili kwakubhekwa njengokuphulukisa, ezinye izazi zaphikisa ukuphatha umthetho ongekho emthethweni kwaze kwalungisa.

Inselele Yokuvuselelwa KweTrump

Impikiswano ephakeme kakhulu yendaba yenkumbulo yamuva nje yenzeka phakathi nokunikezelwa kukaMongameli uDonald Trump ka-2017. Njengoba ayesho isifungo eceleni kukaMahluleli omkhulu uJohn Roberts, uTrump walishiya igama elithi ngokuthembeka" emazwini athi "enze iHhovisi ngokuthembeka" uRoberts wayehlose ukuhola nge "I, uDonald John Trump, ufunge kakhulu ukuthi ngizoyibulala ngokwethembeka iHhovisi likaMongameli wase-United States," kodwa uTrump wafaka ihhrain yakhe siqu, futhi ukuqopha kokugcina kubonisa ukuthi wathi: "I, Donald. J. Trump, wenza isithembiso esiqotho sokuthi ngiyokhipha ihhovisi lomongameli wase-United States."

Izazi ezingokomthetho zahlukana kakhulu ekuqondeni incazelo. Ezinye zaphikisa ngokuthi ukungabi khona "kwesifungo sokuthembeka" kwakuwukugxunyekwa kwemisebenzi yezobuchwepheshe, okufana ne-akminiki elahlekile, futhi akuphazamisanga ukufaneleka okungokomthetho kwesifungo. Nokho, ezinye zakhomba ekuqondeni okungokomlando ukuthi isifungo siyisenzo esisodwa, esihlangene somfungo; ukushiya isihluthulelo esichaza umsebenzi wesikhundla, ngokwesimiso, ukulahla yonke impikiswano. Icala labekwa abakhokhi abambalwa abakhokhi abaqayo, kuhlanganise nomahluleli abaholi bezwe abathatha ikheshiwe, ukufuna isahlulelo sokulahla isigwebo esinephutha esilulaza umongameli. Icala lalahlwa ngokungenye indlela ngenxa yokungami, nokunquma ukuthi umbuzo ongekho ngokwezimiso, isinqumo esiwumthetho - ngokomthetho washiya icala lingekho ngokomthetho. Impikiswano ewuhlukene mayelana nokuthula kwempikiswano.

Ngalé kweTrump, abanye amongameli baye banezela amagama abo siqu. UGeorge Washington wanezela ngokudume kakhulu "Ngakho ngisize uNkulunkulu" ngemva kwesifungo sakhe sokuqala, inkulumo eye yasetshenziswa amongameli abaningi abalandelayo kodwa ayiyona ingxenye yombhalo womthetho-sisekelo. Abanye bafuna "Ngakho ngisiza uNkulunkulu" ngezifungo zabo, kodwa imfuneko kahulumeni ayikakhulumi kulendaba. Ukunezela amagama angokwenkolo kuye kwabekelwa inselele njengokuphulwa kwe-Oplicaine, kodwa izinkantolo ziye zalokhu zikholelwa ukuthi lesi senzo siyimikhosi futhi asifaki uvivinyo olungokwenkolo. Noma kunjalo, umkhuba uyaqhubeka uvusa ingxoxo ngokuhlukanisa isonto nombuso wesifungo.

Imibuzo Yomthetho - sisekelo Nokuthula Kokwahlulela

Izinkantolo zikahulumeni ziye zagwema kakhulu ukukhipha isinqumo esingokomthetho esingaphansi komphumela wesifungo sobumongameli. Umbuzo oyinhloko yilona: uma umongameli ethatha isifungo kodwa kamuva sitholakala singasebenzi kahle (noma kungenxa yokungalungi, ukwehluleka ukusithatha, noma ukusiguqula ngamabomu), ingabe lesosici silula singamkhinyabezi umongameli?

INkantolo Ephakeme ayikaze ikhulume ngokuqondile ngalendaba. Ecalani elihilela izifungo zikamongameli Madison v., uMadison uMahluleli omkhulu Marshall waphawula ukuthi isifungo sibopha izikhulu zomphakathi ukuba zisekele uMthetho-sisekelo, kodwa lelocala ngokuyinhloko laliphathelene nokubukezwa kwezokwahlulela, hhayi ngokusemthethweni. Icala likahulumeni elihilela izifungo, njengalo [[FLT:] Torbaso v. Watkins (1961), lalikholelwa ukuthi kudinga ukuvivinywa kwenkolo kwehhovisi lombuso lokuHlatha iSigqi sokuHlulela, kodwa alizange likhulume ngamazwi aqondile esifungweni. Inkantolo yasondela kakhulu yayiku [FLD] United States.[5][5]

Isithiyo esiyinhloko semfundiso yemfundiso yokwahlulela imfundiso yezezombangazwe. Ngaphansi kwalemfundiso, izinkantolo zenqaba ukunquma izimpikiswano ezibekwe ngokomthetho kwelinye igatsha noma lezo ezingenazindinganiso ezilawulwa ngokwemithetho. Umbuzo wokuthi umongameli uye wathatha lesifungo ngokufanelekile yini ungabonwa njengendaba yokuba uKhongolo-mkhandlu wahlulele uma ithatha amavoti akhethiwe futhi uqinisekise ukuthi umkhethi we-presidentile, noma indaba yezombangazwe ishiyelwe emagatsheni ezombangazwe. Lokhu kwakuyisizathu esiqondiswe ecaleni le-Trump: inkantolo yesifunda yayithi amafektha avamile antula ukuma, futhi i-D.C. uFrangert wavuma, enqaba ukuthatha indawo ephethe lokho ayekubheka njengomphathi wezombangazwe njengomgadi.

Kodwa ukuthula kwejaji kushiya ukungaqondi okuyingozi. Ake ucabange ngesenzakalo lapho umongameli enqaba khona ukuthatha isifungo, mhlawumbe njengokubhikisha. UMthetho-sisekelo ufuna isifungo phambi kukamongameli "ukungena ekubhujisweni kwehhovisi lakhe" uma kungekho sifungo esithathwayo, umongameli ongumsekela uba umongameli ngaphansi kweSichibiyelo sama-20, kodwa kuthiwani uma umongameli wesekela enqaba? Ukulandela kungaba inhlekelele engokomthetho. Ukungabi nasiqondiso sokwahlulela kusho ukuthi ukuthembeka kwesifungo kuxhomeke kakhulu ekwamukweni kwezombangazwe nasekwamusweni komphakathi, hhayi ekuphoqelelweni okungokomthetho.

I - oath Nempumelelo Yomongameli

Indima yesifungo sokulandelana yacaciswa yiSichibiyelo sama-25, esamisa izinqubo zokukhubazeka komongameli kanye nendawo. Ngaphansi kwengxenye 1, isekela likamongameli liba ngumongameli uma umongameli efa, edebuswa, noma esuswa. Kodwa iSiqesha 2 sivumela umongameli ukuba athathe isikhundla sikamongameli uma ihhovisi lingasenamuntu, futhi ukuthi umongameli umelwe aqiniseki ngazo zombili izikhundla zomongameli. Ngokubalulekile, uma umongameli ekhuphukela ku-Cenzanis(a lapho kwenzeka no-Gerald Ford) ngo-1959. Kumelwe ukuba athathe isifungo sikamongameli ngaphambi kokuba asebenzise amandla esikhundla. Ukwehluleka ukwenza into engokomthetho: umongameli uzoba umongameli usayikuba ngumongameli, kodwa angeke abe negunya lokusebenza njengomongameli.

Lokhu kuphakamisa umbono othakazelisayo wezomthetho. Uma umongameli efungele ngesifungo esikhubazekile, futhi kamuva kutholakale lokho okusho ukuthi zonke izenzo ezenziwa umongameli [1] kuhlanganisa neziyalezo zesikhulu, ukumiswa, nokuxolelwa, futhi kulula, noma kulula, izazi ezingokomthetho ziphikisa ngokuthi [ i-chateo imfundiso ivikela ukusebenziseka kwezenzo zangaphambili, kodwa [[FLT]] i-jure[FLT] ufulumela kuka-umendisholo [iiiiiiiiimpela] ingabekelwa inseleleka. [[[FLT:] Imfundiso [[FLT:] [FLT], isetshenziswa kakhulu] ezikhulwini zomphakathi, yenza izenzo eziboniswa umuntu obonakala enegunya elingokomthetho uma ngisho nesikhundla sawo sithola imfundiso.

Esinye isimo sokulandelana sihlanganisa "isifungo sikaNkulunkulu". Kuthiwani uma umongameli-kahulumeni efa ngaphambi kokuba enze isifungo? IsiHlulelo sama-20 sinikeza ngokucacile ukuthi isekela likamongameli-sakhi libe ngumongameli. Kodwa uma umongameli ukhetha ulimala futhi engakwazi ukwenza isifungo ngoSuku lokuQalisa? Ukulungisa amacembe adidayo okungaqondakali kakhulu: ukuthi "Uma uMongameli okhethiwe ahluleke ukufaneleka," khona - ke umongameli ongumhleli ongummeli osebenza njengomongameli kuze kube umongameli-oyena ofanelekayo." ngokunokwenzeka uFailing uhlanganisa ukungathathi isifungo, kodwa amazwi awakaze ashicilwe. Ngakho, isifungo siwumboniso esiyinhloko umongameli "ubumba" obekiwe.

Izimfune Zemithetho Ebanzi: Amaphutha Nemigoqo Yamanga

Isifungo sobumongameli asisona nje isithembiso esingokwesiko; sisenzweni esingokomthetho esingathatha imiphumela uma sephulwa. ISiphakamiso II, iSiqeshana sesine sinikeza ukugunyazwa nokususwa kukamongameli "Isizathu, Ukufumbathisa, noma okunye ubugebengu obuphakeme nobuMisdeator". Ukwephulwa ngamabomu kwesifungo (ngokwesibonelo, ukwenza isifungo ngenhloso yokungawunaki uMthetho-sisekelo ("nesizathu sokungalungisi"'ingahloniphikiswa'iphutha okukhulu,'i-"impoqo ewukungamela umongameli u-Andrea Johnson,'ihlanganisa ukugxabela izifungo zakhe, nakuba lezo zingezona ezisemqoka kuye. Inkathi yanamuhla, abanye abahlazi bemithetho baye baphikisa ukuthi umongameli ozenza ngokungemthetho, njengomthetho oziyo, ozishaya umthetho owe.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, isifungo siye sasetshenziswa ezimpikiswaneni eziphathelene nokuvikela umongameli. Uma umongameli ethi akavikeleki ngokuphelele ekumangalelweni ngezenzo zomthetho, abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi ukugonyelwa okunjalo kunganikeza isifungo esingenanjongo ngoba umongameli uyolandisa kunoma ubani. iNixon ne Clinton abathi izifungo zasho ukuthi isifungo siwumthetho wokuziphatha. Ku-Clinton ukugobeka okuphelele, iKomiti yendlu isho ukuthi umongameli uphule isifungo sakhe ngokuqamba amanga ngaphansi kwesifungo somphakathi, okuthi, bathi, balulaza izifungo ezingcwele. ISifungo, kodwa ingxoxo yaqokomisa ukungezwani phakathi kwesifungo njengesiqinisekiso somthetho.

Kubalulekile futhi ukuqaphela ukuthi kunemithetho kahulumeni elahla izinkulumo ezingamanga kanye ne-pejury .18 U.S. 76 1621 no-1001 . kodwa akucacile ukuthi lemithetho iyasebenza yini esifungweni somongameli. Isifungo asiyona isifungo esenziwe egunyeni elingokomthetho eliqhubekayo; siyimfuneko engokomthetho. INkantolo Ephakeme ibambelele ekutheni isifungo sehhovisi asiyilakhi ilungelo eliyimfihlo lezakhamuzi lokukhokha ukuze zifake umongameli ngenxa yokwephulwa kwesifungo (bona .[FLT]].[FLT]], 1998, isho izimpikiswano zokuma kwezombangazwe kuphela), futhi ekugcineni, ibhokisi ye-boliv, i-bolobolo.

Isihlwathi Njengophawu Lomthetho - sisekelo

Ngaphandle kokuphoqelelwa okungokomthetho, isifungo sifeza umsebenzi obalulekile ongokomfanekiso. Isenzo sokuphakamisa isandla somuntu nokuphindaphinda amazwi siqinisekisa obala isivumelwano somphakathi: igunya likamongameli lisuka kuMthetho-sisekelo, futhi umongameli uyavuma ukubopha isisindo esingokomfanekiso ngokubopha ngezikhathi zokumiswa kwemithetho-siseko noma lapho igunya lokhetho liphikiswa. Ngokwesibonelo, ku-176 u-mncintiswano wokukhetha, uRutherford B. Hayes wathatha isifungo emkhosini wangasese ngoMarch 3, 1877, ngaphambi kokunikezelwa kwasobala ngoMarch 5, ngoba impikiswano yokhetho yayinganqunywanga ngokugcwele. Isifungo sangasese sasinikezwa igunya elingokomthetho lokuthatha isinyathelo njengomongameli, sibonisa ukuthi isicimo esingokomfanekiso asiqhubi somthetho kodwa siqinisa imfuneko engokomthetho.

Ezinye izazi ziphikisa ngokuthi isifungo sibhekwa njengethuluzi elingokomthetho. Ziveza ukuthi amongameli baye bathatha isifungo futhi bahileleka ekuziphatheni okungavumelani nemithetho. Kodwa esimweni ngasinye, uLincoln unquma i-habeas corpus, ikhonsathi yenkantolo ye-FDR, uhlelo lwe-FoxR, icebo lokufihla i-Watergate-up. Isifungo asizange sivimbele lezenzo ngoba asinawo amandla okuzilawula. Kodwa ecaleni ngalinye, ukwephulwa kwesithembiso kwakuba yindawo yokuphikisana nokuphikiswa futhi, ekugcineni, ukuhlola amandla eququlukileyo. Ngakho, amandla angempela esifungo singase sibe sezombangazwe nangokwesiko, hhayi ngokomthetho.

Isifungo sisebenza futhi njengomkhuba wesiko, okuphawula ukuguqulwa komphakathi kusuka esabelweni sangasese kuya kumphathi womphakathi. Ngenxa yokuthi isifungo siyadingeka ngaphambi kokuba umongameli afeze ihhovisi, sikha umthetho okhanyayo: ngaphambi kokuba umongameli asungule isifungo, akanalo igunya eliphethe; ngemva kwalokho, banegunya eligcwele. Lemfanelo ebili ibalulekile ekudluliseni amandla ngokuhlelekile. Ngisho nokusho isifungo esiyiphutha, uma nje kuvunywa amaqembu, kungafeza lomsebenzi wokuguqula, njengoba kuboniswe ngo 2009.

Imibono Eqhathaniswayo: Amathumbu Emhlabeni Wonke

Ukuze siqonde ukuthi isifungo sobumongameli wase-U.S. sihlukile, kuyasiza ukubheka ezinye izizwe. I-United Kingdom ayinawo umthetho-sisekelo obhaliwe, nakuba isifungo senkosi ebekwa esihlalweni siyinkonzo engokwenkolo. Undunankulu akadingeki ukuba enze isifungo somthetho-sisekelo; kunalokho, imiswe inkosi futhi kumelwe ifunge ukwethembeka kuMbuso. Lokho kugcizelela isibopho saseMelika kumthetho-sisekelo olotshiwe njengomthombo ophakeme wemithetho esemthethweni.

Umongameli waseFrance ufunga phambi koMkhandlu woMthetho-sisekelo, ufunga ukuhlonipha uMthetho-sisekelo futhi uvikela isizwe. Amagama aqondile anikezwa umthetho, futhi lo mkhosi usemthethweni kodwa awuyibukeli ikomiti yokwahlulela. Ngokuphambene, umthetho weSisekelo waseJalimane ufuna ukuba uMongameli noMnyango we-Chosa ukuba benze isifungo esihlanganisa "Ngakho ngisize uNkulunkulu" ngaphandle kokuba umphathi wehhovisi akhethe ukuwukhipha. Izinkantolo zaseJalimane zibambelele ekutheni isifungo sibopha kodwa asisona isimo sokwamukela isikhundla; ukwenqaba ukuthatha isikhundla.

Lokhu kuqhathanisa kubonisa ukuthi nakuba imibuso eminingi yentando yeningi inezifungo, inguqulo yaseMelika iboshelwe ngokukhethekile kuMthetho-sisekelo njengencwadi esunguliwe. Isifungo sase-U.S. asisona isithembiso kumbusi noma kuhulumeni kodwa kuMthetho-sisekelo ngokwawo. Lokhu kubonisa i-ethos yemithetho-sisekelo yaseMelika, lapho umthetho uphakeme khona kunoma yimuphi umbusi. Izimpikiswano mayelana nokusho kwesifungo nezincazelo ziwukuphikisana phansi, ngesimo sobudemokramethi obulawulwa aseMelika.

Isiphetho: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Njalo Kokwethembeka Komthetho - sisekelo

Isifungo sikamongameli silokhu siwumthetho ophakeme nomthetho-sisekelo owenziwe ngokukhohlisayo oqhubeka ubangela ukuphikisana okucebile. Kusukela ekukhetheni kwabo amagama ngamabomu ukuya ezimpikiswaneni zokunikezelwa kwanamuhla, isifungo sisinyanzela ukuba sibhekane nemibuzo eyisisekelo: Kusho ukuthini ukuvikela nokuvikela" uMthetho-sisekelo? Kufanele kuhlonishwe ngokuthembeka kangakanani? Futhi ubani onqumayo ukuthi isifungo sephulwe nini? Izinkantolo zishiye lemibuzo ingaphendulwangaxazululwanga, futhi amagatsha ezombangazwe ayazidingisisa ngokwengxenye kuphela ngemithetho nangezinqubo ezilandelanayo. Umphumela umthetho womthetho odingeka ngokomthetho futhi uchazwe ngokomthetho.

Njengoba i-United States iqhubeka iguqula, izinselele ezintsha ziyohlola indima yesifungo. Umongameli wesikhathi esizayo angasithatha yini isifungo nge-electron? Umongameli oyisifungo anganqaba yini ukuthatha isifungo njengohlobo lokubhikisha? Ingabe uKhongolo lungamisa indinganiso yokuba ngcono kwesifungo ngaphezu kwemfuneko yamanje yombhalo? Lezimo, nakuba kungenakwenzeka, ziqokomisa isidingo esiqhubekayo sokucacisa. Okuhlala kungumthwalo ongokomfanekiso wesifungo: kuyisikhathi lapho amandla edluliselwa ngokuthula futhi umongameli omusha emukela umthetho oMthethweni weSifungo njengomthetho ophakeme. Ukuqonda izimpikiswano ezingokomthetho nasemthethweni ezizungeze lesisenzo esilula kusiza izakhamuzi ukuba ziqonde isidingo esiqhubekayo sokucaca nokuqina kwentando yentando yeningi yaseMelika.

[[Umthetho:0] Izikhombo ze-External:[[[Umthetho:1]